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*** Product Information and Prices Stored: Dec 15, 2009 15:04:19

By Dirk Van Dijk
December 11, 2009

Earnings Preview 12/14 – 12/18

Next week will be a light one on the earnings front, with a total of only 40 companies reporting, including 9 S&P 500 firms. Among the more noteworthy names that are going to report are: Federal Express (FDX), General Mills (GIS) and Nike (NKE). There will also be several potentially market-moving economic reports.

Monday
• Nothing of significance.

Tuesday
• The Producer Price Index (PPI) is released for November. The headline PPI is expected to show an increase of 0.9%, on top of last month’s 0.3% increase. However, most of that is expected to come from food and energy price increases. The core PPI is expected to post an increase of just 0.2% after falling 0.6% in October.
• The Empire State Manufacturing Survey is expected to show that manufacturing activity in the New York area increased at a slightly faster pace in its December survey than it did in its November survey, with a reading or 25.0, up from 23.5.
• Capacity Utilization is expected to have risen to 71.1% overall in November, up from 70.7% in October. This is still an extremely low reading, but has been showing signs of rebounding in recent months. If the consensus expectations are met it will be the 5th straight monthly increase since it bottomed in June at 68.3%, an all-time record low. Total Capacity Utilization normally runs at around 80% in a healthy economy. Manufacturing Capacity utilization was 67.6% in October, up from a low of 65.1% in June. This report is far more important than the amount of attention it usually receives.
• Industrial production is expected to have expanded by 0.6% in November after a 0.1% increase in October.

Wednesday
• Housing Starts are expected to rebound to an annualized rate of 575,000 after a very disappointing level of just 529,000 in October. Recent strength in new home sales have given builders a bit more leeway in starting additional homes.
• Building Permits, the best indicator of future housing starts, are expected to rise to a 570,000 annual rate, up from 552,000 in October.
• The Consumer Price Index (CPI) will probably rise by 0.3% in November on a headline basis after rising 0.2% in October. Core (ex-food and energy) CPI is expected to be up a more tame 0.1% after a 0.3% increase in October. Within the report, pay special attention to how Rent and Owner’s Equivalent Rent are doing. Together they make up almost 30% of the total CPI and almost 40% of the core CPI, and should be keeping overall inflation in check.
• The Federal Reserve finishes up their two-day policy meeting. There is almost no chance that they will raise the Fed Funds rate from its current 0 to 0.25% range. Economists will be reading the tea leaves in the Fed statement closely for any change in tone that might indicate when the Fed will start tightening again.

Thursday
• Weekly initial claims for unemployment insurance come out. These have been in a steep downward trend of late, although still at historically high levels. Last week there were 474,000 initial claims — the first increase in five weeks. Look for the decline to resume. Continuing claims have also been in a steep downtrend of late, even if one factors in the extended claims paid by the Federal government as part of the Stimulus Program. Look for a further decline in regular continuing claims from the current level of 5.157 million, offset by a smaller rise in the extended claims which now total 4.586 million.
• The Index of Leading Economic Indicators is expected to post a gain of 0.7% following a 0.3% gain last month.

Friday
• No reports of any significance.

Potential Positive Surprises
Historically, the best indicators of firms which are likely to report positive surprises are a recent history of positive surprises and rising estimates going into the report. The Zacks Rank is also a good indicator of potential surprises. Some of the companies that have these characteristics include:

Federal Express (FDX) is expected to post EPS of $1.06, down from $1.58 last year. That low expectation sets it up for a positive surprise. Last time out they just met expectations, but the stock holds a coveted Zacks Rank #1 and over the last month the expectations for the about-to-be-reported quarter have jumped by 25.7%.

General Mills (GIS) is expected to report EPS of $1.45 vs. $1.36 a year ago. The mean estimate for the quarter has edged up by 0.8% over the last month and last time out the company posted a positive surprise of 24.3%. The stock holds a Zacks Rank of 2.

Joy Global (JOYG), the maker of mining machines, is expected to see EPS drop to $1.01 from $1.23 last year. However, last time out it posted a 26% positive surprise and the estimates for this quarter have edged up by 0.8% over the last month. The stock holds a Zacks Rank of 2.

Potential Negative Surprises
In keeping with the overall very positive tone of this earnings season, the potential negative firms are less clear cut. However:

Applied Signal (APSG) is expected to post EPS of $0.24 a share, up from $0.20 a year ago. Last time they disappointed by 3.85%. The mean estimate for the quarter is down 0.9% over the last month and the stock has a weak Zacks Rank of 4.

Author : GANY, RENALDY

This research is written to reveal local and global errors produced by the first writing class students in their journals. The study of local and global errors is the study on the communicative effect classification. It focuses on distinguishing between errors that seem to cause miscommunication (global) and those that do not (local). This study is conducted with the hope of giving a contribution to second language learners in the process of their second language acquisition. By evaluating the errors produced, this thesis is hoped to be able to help learners to learn when they correct the errors. Students and teachers here are expected to have a better understanding on the importance of making errors. This is a descriptive-qualitative study, as the writer describes and explores the errors without making any generalization from the findings. Here, the writer acts as the key instrument to collect the data. The errors in this study are identified and examined based on standard English grammar by Quirk and Greenbaum. The major theory applied was Politzer and Ramirez’s linguistic category taxonomy to classify the local errors into categories and subcategories, while Dulay and Hurt’s and Hurt and Kiparsky?s classifications of global errors were used to classify and explain the global errors. He found that most errors found in this study were considered local. Only three cases out of 311 errors found in this study were global. The students made almost all the subcategories of local error found in the Politzer and Ramirez’s linguistic category taxonomy. Noun phrase deviation was the most common error. For global errors, the students used wrong sentence connector and missing cues to signal obligatory exceptions of syntactic rules.

Keyword : applied, linguistics, english, language, errors, writing, student, journals

Sumber : http://repository.petra.ac.id/2276/

Caution: This post is very long! It runs to 56 pages on the Web.

We did a post on this earlier, but it looks like we only scratched the surface. There are tons of webpages on this topic, and I suppose one could read away on the subject for some time, but after a while, things start getting repetitive. This post is very good. They did a survey, and this is what they came up with. This post is also very good. There are more in various places on the Web.

The nine hardest languages to learn overall were:

Mandarin, Hungarian, Finnish, Polish, Arabic, Hindi, Icelandic, German and Swedish. I would just leave Swedish off the list altogether, as it’s actually a pretty easy language to learn.

The eight hardest languages to speak (or to pronounce correctly, specifically) were French, Mandarin, Polish, Korean, Hungarian, Arabic, Basque and Hindi.

The hardest languages to write were Arabic, Mandarin, Polish, French, Serbo-Croatian, Japanese, Russian, Basque and English.

Mandarin, Arabic, Japanese and Russian of course use different alphabets.

Ratings: Languages are rated 1-5, easiest to hardest. 1 = easiest, 2 = moderately easy, 3 = moderately difficult, 4 = very to extremely difficult, 5 = most difficult of all.

Time needed: Time needed to learn the language “reasonably well”: Level 1 languages = 3 months to 1 year. Level 2 languages = 6 months to 1 year. Level 3 languages = 1 to 2 years. Level 4 languages = 2 years. Level 5 languages = 3-4 years of study, but some may take longer.

Indo-European

Indo-Aryan

Indian languages like Kashmiri, Hindi and especially Sanskrit are also quite hard, and Sanskrit is legendary in its extreme complexity. Sanskrit grammar is very complicated. There are 8 cases. However, Sanskrit has one of the most regular grammars on Earth. Sinhala is also difficult.

The Hindi script is quite opaque to Westerners, some of whom say that Chinese script is easier. You speak one way if you are talking to a man or a woman, and you also need to take into account whether you as speaker are male or female. In addition, Hindi has many long words.

Hindi is rated 3, moderately difficult.

Kashmiri, Sinhala and Sanskrit are rated 4, extremely difficult.

Iranian

Persian is also said to be a hard language to learn, but I am not sure why. On the plus side, Persian has a very simple grammar.

Nonetheless, Persian only gets a 3 rating as moderately difficult.

Romance

French is pretty easy to learn at a simple level, but it’s not that easy to get really good at it. For instance, there are idioms everywhere, and it’s often hard to figure them out. There are many genders, but they are not much used anymore. French has a grammar that is neither simple nor difficult; that, combined with a syntax is pretty straightforward and a Latin alphabet make it pretty easy to learn for most Westerners.

One problem is pronunciation. There are many nasal vowels, similar to Portuguese. There is also a strange uvular r. The orthography is also difficult, since there are many sounds that are written but no longer pronounced, as in English. Also similar to English, orthography does not line up with pronunciation. For instance, there are 13 different ways to spell the o sound: o, ot, ots, os, ocs, au, aux, aud, auds, eau, eaux, ho and ö.

The English language, having no Language Committee, at least has an excuse for the nonsensical nature of its spelling. The French have no excuse, since they have a committee that is set up in part to keep the language as stupid as possible. One of their passions is refusing to change the spelling of words even as pronunciation changes, which is the opposite of what occurs in any sane spelling reform. So French is, like English, frozen in time. Furthermore, to make matters worse, the French are almost as prickly about writing properly as they are about speaking properly, and you know how they are about foreigners mangling their language.

A good case can be made, though, that French is harder to learn than English. Verbs change much more, and it has grammatical gender.

French is one of the toughest languages to learn in the Romance family, and it gets a 3 rating for moderately difficult.

Italian is said to be easy to learn, especially if you speak a Romance language or English, but learning to order a pizza and really mastering it are two different things.

For instance, Italian three types of tenses, simple tenses, compound tenses, and indefinite tenses. There are also various moods that combine to take tense forms – 4 subjunctive moods, 2 conditional moods, 2 gerund moods, 2 infinite moods, 2 participle moods and 1 imperative mood.

There are 8 tenses in the indicative mood – recent past, remote pluperfect, recent pluperfect, preterite (remote past), imperfect, present, future, future perfect. There are 4 tenses in the subjunctive mood – present, imperfect, preterite and pluperfect. There are 2 tenses in the conditional mood – present and preterite. There is only 1 tense in the imperative mood – present. Gerund, participle and infinite moods all take only present and perfect tenses.

All of these forms are used regularly. Altogether, using these mood-tense combinations, any Italian verb can decline in up to 21 different ways.

Foreigners usually do not learn Italian at anywhere near a native level.

Italian has many irregular verbs. There are many combinations just to make articles and prepositions and 600 irregular verbs with all sorts of different irregularities. Nevertheless, it is a Romance language and Romance has gotten rid of most of its irregularity. The Slavic languages are much more irregular than Romance.

Counterintuitively, some Italian words are masculine in the singular and feminine in the plural or vice versa. There are many different ways to say the – il, i, lo, gli , l’ (masculine); la, le, l’ (feminine). Few Italians even write Italian 100% correctly. A problem with Italian is that meaning is inferred via intonation. If you mess up the intonation of your utterance, you’re screwed and will not be understood. However, there is no case in Italian, as in all of Romance.

Italian is still probably easier to learn than French and it gets a 2 rating, moderately easy.

Surprisingly enough, Romanian is said to be one of the harder Romance languages to speak or write properly. Even Romanians often get it wrong. One strange thing about Romanian is that the articles are attached to the noun as suffixes. In all the rest of Romance, article are free words that precede the noun. English: telephone and the telephone; Romanian: telefon and telefonul. Romanian is harder to learn than Spanish or Italian, and possibly harder than French. It has considerable Slavic influence.

Romanian gets a 3 rating as moderately hard to learn.

Spanish is often said to be one of the easiest languages to learn, though this is somewhat controversial. Personally, I’ve been learning it off and on since age 6 and I still have problems, though Spanish speakers say my Spanish is good, but Hispanophones, unlike the French, are generous about these things.

It’s quite logical, though the verbs do decline a lot with tense and number, and there are many irregular verbs, similar to French. Nevertheless, Romance grammar is much more regular than, say, Polish, as Romance has junked most of the irregularity. It has the good grace to lack case though, spelling is a piece of cake, and words are spoken just as they are written. Nevertheless, Hispanophones say that few foreigners end up speaking like natives.

Rated 1 as easiest of all.

Portuguese, like Spanish, is also very easy to learn, though Portuguese pronunciation is harder due to the odd vowels such as nasal diphthongs and the strange l . Writing it is a bit harder, since there are consonants that are written but not spoken.

Portuguese gets a 1 rating, easiest of all.

Hellenic

Greek is said to be a pretty difficult language to learn and oddly enough, it’s rated the second hardest language to learn by language professors. It’s easy to learn to speak simply, but it’s quite hard to get it down like a native. It’s the rare second language learner who attains native competence. Greek grammar is dead simple, but there are problems with writing Greek. Like English, the spelling doesn’t seem to make sense, and you have to memorize many words. Further, there is the weird alphabet.

Greek gets a 4 rating, extremely difficult to learn.

Classic Greek is worse, with a distinction between aspirated and unaspirated consonants, a pitch accent system and a truly convoluted system of noun and verb inflection.

Classic Greek gets a 5 rating, hardest of all.

Germanic

People often say that English is easy to learn, but that is deceptive. For one thing, English has anywhere from 500,000-1 million words (said to be twice as much as any other language – but there are claims that Dutch and Arabic each have 4 million words) and the number increases by the day, furthermore, most people don’t understand more than 50,000. Yet they only use 5,000 at most.

Actually, it is said that the average American or Brit uses a mere 2,500 words. As we might expect, our cultivated Continentals in Europe, such as Spaniards and French, probably have twice the regular vocabulary of English speakers and far more colloquial expressions.

In addition, verbal phrases are a nightmare. The spelling is insane and hardly follows any rules at all. There are figures of speech everywhere and it seems impossible to learn them all. In fact, few second language learners seem to get all the idioms down pat.

The rules governing the use of the indefinite, definite and zero article are opaque and possibly don’t even exist. There are synonyms for almost every word in a sentence and the various shades of meaning can be difficult to discern. In addition, many words have many different meanings. There are strange situations like read and read, which are pronounced differently and mean two different things.

There are various different levels of the infinitive, though they are not used that much – to take, to be taking, to be taken, to have taken, to have been taken. There are actually 12 different verb tenses in English, and foreigners often have problems with them. There are over 200 irregular verbs.

There are quite a few dialects – over 100 have been recorded in London alone. Letters can make many different sounds (a consequence of the insane spelling system) – one vowel can be pronounced 26 different ways. English prepositions are notoriously hard, and it’s said that few second language learners really get them down right. This is probably because it often seems that many English prepositions obey no discernible rules.

While English seems simple at first – past tense is easy, little or no case, no grammatical gender, little mood, etc. – that can be quite deceptive. In European countries like Croatia, it’s hard to find a person who speaks English with native speaker competence.

The problem with English is that it’s a mess! There are languages with very easy grammatical rules like Indonesian, and languages with very hard grammatical rules like Arabic. English is one of those languages that is a total mess. There are rules, but there are exceptions everywhere and exceptions to the exceptions. Grammatically, it’s disaster area. It’s hard to know where to start.

Nevertheless, for a variety of reasons, English only gets a 2 rating as moderately easy to learn, in part because it is fairly easy to speak it well enough as to be more or less understandable much of the time.

German’s status is controversial. It’s long been considered hard to learn, but many say that they did not have much problem learning it. However, let’s not underestimate German. There are 6 different forms of the depending on the noun case – der , die, das, den , dem and des – but 16 different slots to put the 6 forms in, and the gender system is irrational. In a more basic sense and similar to Danish, there are 3 basic forms of the: der, die and das. Each one goes with a particular noun, and it’s not very clear what the rules are.

Pronunciation is straightforward, but there are some problems with the müde, the Ach, and the two ch sounds in Geschichte. One problem with German syntax is that the verb, verbs or parts of verbs don’t occur until the end of the sentence. German also has Schachtelsätzen, box clauses, which are like clauses piled into other clauses. The syntax is very rigid but at least very regular. In addition, subclauses use SOV word order. German case is also quite regular. The case exceptions can be almost counted on 1 hand.

An example of German case (and case in general) is here: The leader of the group gives the boy a dog. In German, the sentence is case marked with the 4 different German cases: Der Führer (nominative) der Gruppe (genitive) gibt dem knabe (dative) einen Hund (accusative).

There are three genders, masculine, feminine and neutral. Yet maiden is neutral and petticoat is masculine! The r in German is quite strange, and of common languages, only French has a similar r. Any given noun inflects into 4 cases and the 3 genders.

One problem with German is that you need a big vocabulary to even engage in small talk. This is a real disadvantage. German also has a vast vocabulary, said to be the 4th largest in the world.

On the plus side, word formation is pretty regular. Pollution is Umweltverschmutzung. It consists, logically, of two words, Umwelt and Verschmutzung , which mean environment and dirtying. In English, you have three words, environment, dirtying and pollution, the combination which has no relation to its semantic roots. Nevertheless, this has its problems, since it’s not so simple to figure out how the words are stuck together into bigger words, and meanings of morphemes can take years to figure out.

Also, German is not very inflected, and the inflection that it does take is quite regular.

German gets a 3 rating, moderately difficult.

Icelandic is said to be very hard to learn, much harder than Norwegian, German or Swedish. Part of the problem is pronunciation. The grammar is harder than German grammar, and there are almost no Latin-based words in it. The vocabulary is quite archaic. Like German, Icelandic has preserved a lot more of the original IE grammar than English has.

There are four cases – nominative, accusative, genitive, and dative – as in German, and there are many exceptions to the case rules, or “quirky case,” as it is called. Verbs are modified for tense, person and number, as in many other IE languages (this is almost gone from English). Icelandic also modifies verbs for mood – active, passive and medial. Furthermore, there seems to be a lack of rules for the declensions and many just have to be memorized. The numeral system is completely convoluted and crazy, but Icelandic speakers take pride in it.

Icelandic gets a 4 rating, hardest of all to learn.

Faroese is said to be even harder to learn than Icelandic, with some very strange vowels not found in other North Germanic languages.

Norwegian and Swedish are both easy to learn, and Norwegian is sometimes touted as the easiest language on Earth to learn. Nevertheless, dialects can be a problem. Swedish does have the disadvantage of having hundreds of irregular verbs. There is also the problematic en and et alternation, as discussed with Danish. Swedish also has some difficult phonemes, especially vowels, since Swedish has 9 vowels, not including diphthongs. But learning to speak Swedish is easy enough. Where Swedish gets difficult is learning how to write it, since the spelling seems illogical, like in English.

Swedish and Norwegian get a 1 rating, very easy to learn.

Danish is actually a pretty tough language to learn! It’s not that hard to read or even write, but it’s quite hard to speak. For one, there are a huge number of dialects. Denmark is just a bunch of really cold islands, with a freezing cold ocean in between them.

People generally stayed on their islands and didn’t move around much. Each little island has its own dialect, and the dialects can be quite baffling for second language learners. There are eight major dialects, and countless minor ones subsumed under them.

Written Danish is very hard to master. For instance, instead of the, there is den and det , and instead of a and an, which are regular in English, there is en and et. Whichever form goes in front of a noun depends on the noun and seems quite arbitrary. There is en hund -a dog and yet et kæledyr – a pet. In addition, nouns take different endings depending on which form of the article they take. A horse – en hest, but the horse – den hesten.

In addition, there d words where the d is silent and other d words where it is pronounced and though the rules are straightforward, it’s often hard for foreigners. The d in hund is silent, for instance.

There are three strange vowels, æ, ø and å. They are also present in Icelandic, Swedish and Norwegian, but foreigners have problems with them.

One advantage of all of the Scandinavian languages, though, is that their basic vocabulary is fairly limited. This in contrast to German or Chinese, where you have to learn a lot of vocabulary just to converse at a basic level.

As with Maltese and Gaelic, there is little correlation between how a word is written and how it is pronounced. Pronunciation of Danish is difficult. Speech is very fast and comes out in a continuous stream that elides entire words. Vowels in the middle and at the end of words are seldom expressed. There are 9 vowels, and each one can be pronounced in 5-6 different ways. There is also a strange phonetic element called a stød, which is a very short pause slightly before the vowel(s) in a word. This element is very hard for foreigners to get right. Just about any word has at least four meanings, and can serve as noun, verb, adjective or adverb. It’s been said that Danish children speak later than other Scandinavian children.

Danish gets a 3 rating, moderately hard to learn.

Dutch is said to be harder to learn than English, due to the large number of rules used in both speaking and writing. Dutch people say that few foreigners learn to speak Dutch well. Part of the problem is that some words have no meaning at all if it is isolation (meaning is only derived via a phrase or sentence). Word order is somewhat difficult, as foreigners often seem to get the relatively lax Dutch rules about word order wrong in long sentences.

Dutch gets a 3 rating, moderately hard to learn.

Goidelic

Any Gaelic language is tough. Irish students take Irish for 13 years and some take French for five years. These students typically know French better than Irish. There are inflections for the inflections of the inflections, a convoluted aspiration system, and no words for yes or no. The system of initial consonant mutation is quite baffling. One problem with Irish is that the way a word looks often does not much to do with the way it is pronounced.

Welsh and Scottish Gaelic are also said to be very hard to learn, some say harder than Irish, although Welsh has no case compared to Irish’s two cases. There is a close orthography-pronunciation match. And the Welsh verb system is very regular – Welsh has a mere five irregular verbs. Gaelic languages are harder to learn than German or Russian.

Scottish Gaelic, Welsh and Irish get 5 ratings, hardest of all.

Armenian

Two obscure branches of Indo-European, Armenian and Albanian, are said to be very hard to learn.

Rated 5, hardest of all.

Albanian

Similarly to Gaelic, Armenian and Albanian are harder to learn than either German or Russian. Albanian may be even harder to learn than Polish.

Rated 5, hardest of all.

Slavic

Czech and Slovak are notorious; in fact, all Slavic languages are. Language professors rate the Slavic languages the third hardest to learn on Earth. Czech is in the Guinness Book of World Records as the hardest language to learn. It’s sometimes said that even Czechs never learn to speak their language correctly, but that is probably an exaggeration. There are seven singular cases, seven plural cases and forty different “modes” for words. Yet it’s full of exceptions and exceptions to the exceptions.

Czech has 7 cases in singular and 7 more cases in plural for nouns for a total of about 40 different “modes” of declension. There are also words that swing back and forth between “modes.” Adjectives and pronouns also have 7 cases in the singular and plural. There are lots of exceptions, too. Verbs also decline. There are 6 genders, 3 in the singular and 3 in the plural.

Truth is that almost every word in the language is subject to declension.

One of the problems with Czech is that not only nouns but also verbs take gender. As with other Slavic languages like Russian, it has the added problem of fairly loose word order. In addition, there are significant differences between casual and formal speech.

Slovak is said to be even harder than Czech, but that’s a tough call. These two languages are the only ones with 7 cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, locative, dative, instrumental and vocative). There is also a hard and soft i which is hard to figure out.

The suffixes on nouns and verbs change all the time in strange ways. It’s also full of words that don’t seem to have vowels. There are some difficult consonants such as š, č, ť, ž, ľ, ď, dz, dž, ĺ and ŕ.

Some say that Slovak is even harder than Polish, but, it’s probably a toss-up between Czech/Slovak and Polish.

Czech and Slovak both get 5 ratings, hardest of all.

Polish is similar, but in Polish at least there are invisible vowels in Polish. That’s not so obviously the case with Czech. Try these sentences: Strč prst skrz krk or Mlž pln skvrn zlvh. Or these: Szczebrzeszynie chrząszcz brzmi w trzcinie i Szczebrzeszyn z tego słynie. Wyindywidualizowaliśmy się z rozentuzjazmowanego tłumu.

I and Y, S and Z, JE and Ě alternate at the ends of some words, but the rules governing when do this, if they exist, don’t seem sensible. The letters Ř and Ť are very hard to pronounce, and the Ř exists in no other language. There are nasal vowels as in Portuguese. The ą, ć, ę, ł, ń, ó, sz, cz, dz, dź, dż sounds are hard for foreigners to make. There are sounds that it is even hard for native speakers to make, as they require a lot tongue movements.

Polish written to spoken pronunciation makes little sense, as in English – h and ch are one sound, and ó, u and ł are one sound. Polish orthography, while being quite regular, is very complex.

Polish is full of words that don’t seem to have any vowels in them. Further, native speakers speak so fast, it’s quite hard for non-natives to understand them. Due to the consonant-ridden nature of Polish, it is harder to pronounce than most Asian languages. Listening comprehension is made difficult by all of the sh and ch like sounds. Furthermore, since few foreigners learn Polish, Poles are not used to hearing their language mangled by second-language learners. Therefore, foreigners’ Polish will seldom be understood.

Polish grammar is much more difficult than Russian grammar.

Polish has seven cases, and case declension is very irregular, unlike German. It also has 7 genders, 5 in singular and 2 in plural. The genders of nouns causes the adjectives modifying them to inflect differently.

Nouns
matka   mother (female gender)
ojciec  father (male gender)
dziecko child (neuter gender)

modifyng adjective
brzydki - ugly

Singular
brzydka matka    ugly mother
brzydki ojciec   ugly father
brzydkie dziecko ugly child

Plural
brzydkie matki   ugly mothers
brzydcy ojcowie  ugly fathers
brzydkie dzieci  ugly children

Gender even effects verbs.

Ja zjadłam – I ate (female speaker), but Ja zjadłem – I ate (male speaker). We killed – zabiliśmy/zabiłyśmy, they killed – zabili/zabiły, I killed – zabiłem/zabiłam. There are two different forms of the verb kill depending on whether the 1st person singular and plural and 2nd person plural killers are males or females.

kupować - to buy

Singular  Simple Past         Imperfect
I (f.)    kupiłam             kupowałam
I (m.)    kupiłem             kupowałem
you (f.)  kupiłaś             kupowałaś
you (m.)  kupiłeś             kupowałeś
he        kupił               kupował
she       kupiła              kupowała
it        kupiło              kupowało

we (f.)   kupiłyśmy           kupowałyśmy
we (m.)   kupiliśmy           kupowaliśmy
you (f.)  kupiłyście          kupowałyścieyou
you (m.)  kupiliście          kupowaliście
they (f.) kupiły              kupowały
they (m.) kupili              kupowali

The verb above forms an incredible 28 different forms in the perfect and imperfect past tense alone.

In addition, there is an animate-inanimate distinction in gender. Look at some words: hat – kapelusz, computer – komputer, dog – pies and student – uczen. All are masculine gender, but computer and hat are inanimate and student and dog are animate, so they inflect differently. I see a new hat – Widze nowy kapelusz, but I see a new student – Widze nowego ucznia . Notice how the now- form changed.

For instance, English have one word for the genitive case of the 1st person singular – my. In Polish, depending on the context, you can have the following forms: mój, moje, moja, moją, mojego, mojemu , mojej, moim, moi , moich, moimi, etc.

English has one word for the number 2 – two. Polish has 35 words for two:

dwa
dwaj
dwie
dwoje
dwóch
dwom
dwóm
dwu
dwoma
dwiema
dwojga
dwojgu
dwójgę
dwójką
dwójkę
dwójki
dwójce
dwojkiem
dwójko
dwójgo
dwojgiem
drugi
druga
drugie
drugiemu
drugiej
drugiego
drugim
drugą
dwójkach
dwójek
dwója
dwójna
dwójkami
dwójkom

Polish, like Hungarian and Finnish, can also have very long word. For instance, pięćsetdwadzieściajedenmiliardówdwieścieczterdzieścisiedemmiloionów-trzystaosiemdzisiątpięćtysięcyczterystadziewięćdziesięciopięcioletni is a word in Polish (There is no dash in the word – I was just dividing the line).

A single noun can change in many ways and take many different forms. Compare przyjaciel – friend

                          singular       plural
who is my friend          przyjaciel     przyjaciele
who is not my friend      przyjaciela    przyjaciół
friend who I give s.t. to przyjacielowi  przyjaciołom
friend who I see          przyjaciela    przyjaciół
friend who I go with      z przyajcielem z przyjaciółmi
friend who I dream of     o przyjacielu  o przyjaciołach
Oh my friend!             Przyajcielu!   Przyjaciele!

There are 12 different forms of the noun friend above.

Polish has perfective and imperfective verbs, but that is the least of the problem. The problem is that each verb is in effect a separate verb altogether, instead of just being conjugated differently. The verb to see has two completely different verbs in Polish: widziec and zobaczyc . Widziałem – I saw (repeatedly in the past, like I saw the sun come up every morning). Zobaczyłem – I saw (only once; I saw the sun come up yesterday).

This is not a tense difference – the very verbs themselves are different! So for every verb in the language, you effectively have to learn two different verbs.

In addition, the future perfect and future imperfect often conjugate completely differently, though the past forms usually conjugate in the same way – note the -em endings above. There is no present perfect as in English, since in Polish the action must be completed, and you can’t be doing something at this precise moment and at the same time have just finished doing it. 95% of verbs have these crazy dual forms, but for 5% of verbs that lack a perfective version, you only have one form.

Plurals change based on number. In English, the plural of telephone is telephones , whether you have 2 or 1000 of them. In Polish, you use different words depending on how many phones you have: 2, 3 or 4 telefony, but 5 telefonów. Sometimes, this radically changes the word, as in hands: 4 ręce, but 5 rąk .

It’s often said that one of the advantages of Polish is that there are only three tenses, but this is not really case, as there are at least 8 tenses:

Indicative – grac – to play.
Present – Gram. – I play.
Past – Gralem. – I played.
Conditional – Gralbym. – I would play.
Future – Będę grać. – I will play.
Continuous future – Będę grał. – I will be playing.
Perfective future – Pogram. – Implies you will finish the action – I will have played.
Perfective conditional – Pogralbym.

There is also an aspectual distinction made when referring to the past. Different forms are used based on whether or not the action has been completed.

In addition, like Serbo-Croatian, Polish can use multiple negation in a sentence. You can use up to 5 negatives in a perfectly grammatical sentence: Nikt nikomu nigdy nic nie powiedzia – Nobody ever said anything to anyone.

Whereas in English we use one word for “go” no matter what mode of transportation we are using to get from one place to another, in Polish, you use different verbs if you are going by foot, by car, by plane, by boat or by other means of transportation.

Like Russian, there are multiple different ways to say the same thing in Polish. In English, you can say Ann has a cat and you can’t mix the words up and mean the same thing. In Polish you can say Ann has a cat 5 different ways: Ania ma kota, Kota ma Ania, Ma Ania kota, Kota Ania ma , Ma kota Ania. The first one is the most common, but the other 4 can certainly be used.

A major problem with Polish grammar is that it is not regular at all. There are probably more exceptions than there are rules. Even more importantly, what rules there are so complex and numerous that it is hard to figure them all out.

It is said English-speaking children reach full adult competency in the language (reading, writing, speaking, spelling) at age 12. Polish children do not reach this milestone until age 16. Even adult Poles make a lot of mistakes in speaking and writing Polish properly. However, most Poles are quite proud of their difficult language (though a few hate it), and even take pride in its difficult nature.

On the positive side, in Polish, the stress is fixed, there are no short or long vowels or vowel harmony, there are no tones and it uses a Latin alphabet.

Polish gets a 5 rating, hardest of all.

Bulgarian is said to be easy, but it’s often hard. Though it is close to Russian, there are Russians who have been living there for 20 years and still can’t understand it well. It has only three cases, but all Western Slavic languages are pretty tough.

Mood is very complicated. There are different ways to say the same idea depending on how you know of the event. If you know about it historically, you mark the sentence with a particular mood. If you doubt the event, you mark with another mood.

If you know it historically but doubt it, yet another mood. And there are more than that. These forms are rather rare in world languages. The only one I can think of offhand is Yamana, a Patagonian language that has only one speaker left. Bulgarian is probably the easiest Slavic language to learn.

Bulgarian gets a 3 rating, moderately hard to learn.

Slovenian is also a very hard language to learn, probably on a par with Serbo-Croatian. It has 3 number distinctions, singular, dual and plural. It’s the only European language that has retained the dual. In addition, there are 6 cases. There are 18 different declensions of the word son, but 5 of them are identical, so there are really only 13 different forms.

   Singular Dual       Plural 

1. Sin      Sina       Sini
2. Sina     Sinov      Sinov
3. Sinu     Sinovoma   Sinovom
4. Sina     Sinova     Sinove
5. O sinu   O sinovoma O sinovih
6. S sinom  Z sinovoma Z sini

There are 7 different ways that nouns decline depending on gender, but there are exceptions to all of the gender rules.

Slovenian gets a 5 rating, hardest of all to learn.

Serbo-Croatian, similar to Czech, has seven cases in the singular and seven in the plural, plus there are several different declensions. There 15 different types of declensions: 7 tenses, 3 genders, 3 moods and 2 aspects. Whereas English has one word for the number 2 – two, Serbo-Croatian has 17 words

Case abbreviations below:
N = NAV – nominative, accusative, vocative
G = Genitive
D = Dative
L =Locative
I = Instrumental

Masculine inanimate gender
N dva
G dvaju
D L I dvama

Feminine gender
N dve
G dveju
D L I dvema

Mixed gender
N dvoje
G dvoga
D L I dvoma

Masculine animate gender
N dvojica
G dvojice
D L dvojici
I dvojicom

“Twosome”
N dvojka
G dvojke
D L dvojci
I dvojkom

The grammar is incredibly complex. There are imprefective and perfective verbs, but when you try to figure out how to build one from the other, it seems quite irregular. This is the hardest part of Serbo-Croatian grammar, and foreigners not familiar with other Slavic tongues usually never get it right.

As in English, there are many different ways to say the same thing. Pronouns are so rarely used that some learners are surprised that they exist, since pronimalization is marked on the verb as person and number. Word order is almost free or at least seems arbitrary, similar to Russian.

Serbo-Croatian, like Lithuanian, has pitch accent – low-rising, low-falling, short-rising and short-falling. It’s not the same as tone but it’s similar. In addition to the pitch accent differentiating words, you also have an accented syllable somewhere in the word, which as in English, is unmarked. And when the word conjugates or declines, the pitch accent jumps around in the word to another syllable and even changes its type in pretty unpredictable ways. It’s almost impossible for foreigners to get this pitch-accent right.

Serbo-Croatian is probably not quite as hard as Polish, but it’s harder than Russian.

Serbo-Croatian gets a 5 rating, hardest of all.

People are divided on the difficulty of Russian, but language teachers say it’s one of the hardest to learn. Some say that even after a couple of years of study, it’s hard to speak even a simple sentence correctly.

It has seven cases, but the grammar is fairly easy for a Slavic language. The problem comes with the variability in pronunciation. The adjectives and endings can be difficult. In addition, Russian has gender and lots of declinations. The adjectives change form if the nouns they describe have different endings. Adjectives also take case somehow. Verbs have different forms depending on the pronouns that precede them.

Word order is pretty free. For instance, you can say I love you by saying I love you, You love I, Love you I, I you love, Love I you and You I love.

Pronunciation is a bit strange, with one vowel that is between an ü and i. Many consonants are quite strange, and every consonant has a palatalized counterpart, which will seem odd to speakers whose languages lack phonemic palatalized consonants. Stress is quite difficult in Russian since it seems arbitrary and does not appear to follow obvious rules: дóма – at home, but домá – buildings.

Like German, Russian builds morphemes into larger words. Again like German, this is worse than it sounds since the rules are not so obvious. One problem is that accent, generally not written out, changes the way the vowel is pronounced. In addition, there is the strange Cyrillic alphabet, which is nevertheless easier than Arabic or Chinese.

Russian gets a 4 rating, very hard to learn.

Baltic

Lithuanian, an archaic Indo-European Baltic tongue, is said to be extremely difficult to learn. There are many dialects, which is interesting for such a small country, and the grammar is extremely difficult, with many rules. There is grammatical gender for nouns, and in addition, even numerals have gender in all cases. The language is heavily inflectional such that you can almost speak without using prepositions.

A single verb has 13 participial forms, and that is just using masculine gender for the participles. You can also add feminine forms to that verb. Furthermore, while it does not have lexical tone per se, it does have pitch accent (I am not sure what the difference is!). It’s almost impossible for foreigners to get the accent right, and the accents tend to move around a lot across words such that the rules are opaque if they exist at all. Often you need a dictionary to figure out where the accent should be on a word. Lithuanian pronunciation is also difficult.

Try these words and phrases: šalna, šąla šiandien, ačiū už skanią vakarienę, pasikiškiakopūsteliaudamasis , ūkis, malūnas, čežėti šiauduose.

Or this paragraph: Labas, kaip šiandien sekasi? Aš esu iš Lietuvos, kur gyvenu visą savo gyvenimą. Lietuvių kalba yra sunkiausia iš visų pasaulyje. Ačiū už dėmesį .

Lithuanian is an archaic IE language that has preserved a lot of forms that the others have lost.

Lithuanian gets a 5 rating, hardest of all.

Latvian is another Baltic language that is somewhat similar to Lithuanian. It’s also said to be hard to learn. Try this: Sveiki, esmu no Latvijas, un mūsu valoda ir skanīga, skaista un ar ļoti sarežģītu gramatisko sistēmu. Latvian and Lithuanian are definitely harder to learn than Russian. They both have aspects like in Russian, but also have more cases than Russian, plus a lot more irregular verbs.

Some say that the Baltic languages are even harder to learn than the hardest Slavic languages like Polish, Czech and Serbo-Croatian.

Latvian gets a 5 rating, hardest of all.

3016702    กายวิภาคประยุกต์สำหรับเวชศาสตร์การกีฬา    Applied Anatomy For Sports Madicine

โครงสร้างพื้นฐานของร่างกายมนุษย์ที่เกี่ยวข้องกับเวชศาสตร์การกีฬา โดยเน้นระบบการเคลื่อนไหวของกล้ามเนื้อและข้อต่อของร่างกาย

(The basic human anatomy related to sports medicine, especially locomotive system.)

(3016702 จุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย)

3017735    ชีวกลศาสตร์ประยุกต์ของการเคลื่อนไหวของมนุษย์    Applied Biomechanics of Human Movement

ค่ามาตรฐานที่ใช้ในการคำนวณการเคลื่อนไหวส่วนต่าง ๆ ของร่างกาย การแปลผลข้อมูลที่วัดได้จากเครื่องมือมาตรฐานที่ใช้ในการวิจัยทางชีวกลศาสตร์การนำความรู้ทางกลศาสตร์ไปประยุกต์ใช้เพื่ออธิบายลักษณะและกลไกของการเคลื่อนไหว รวมถึงปัจจัยที่บ่งชี้ที่เกี่ยวกับความเมื่อยล้าและการบาดเจ็บที่เกิดขึ้นจากการเคลื่อนไหวที่พบในชีวิตประจำวัน รวมถึงการเคลื่อนไหวที่เกี่ยวกับการออกกำลังกายและกีฬา

(Anthropometry: interpretation of biomechanical data; application of mechanics in explaining pattern and mechanism of motion including factors concerning fatigue and injury resulting from movement in daily life and movement related to exercise and sports.)

(3017735 จุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย)

3017736    สรีรวิทยาของการออกกำลังกายประยุกต์    Applied Exercise Physiology

สารกระตุ้นและกลไกในการออกฤทธิ์ของสารกระตุ้น รวมถึงวิธีการเพิ่มประสิทธิภาพของการออกกำลังกายและการเล่นกีฬา การทดสอบสมรรถภาพของหัวใจ รวมถึงลักษณะคลื่นไฟฟ้าหัวใจ โรคอ้วน การควบคุมน้ำหนัก รวมถึงการวัดปริมาณไขมัน การออกกำลังกายเพื่อสุขภาพและกลไกการแก่ ความแตกต่างของการเปลี่ยนแปลงจากการออกกำลังกายในเพศชายและหญิง การออกกำลังกายและกลไกการป้องกันโรคเรื้อรัง

(Doping substances and mechanisms to improve exercise and sport efficiency; exercise stress test and electrocardiography patterns; obesity, weight control, and body composition assessment; exercise for health and aging process; comparison responses to exercise between males and females; exercise and prevention mechanisms to chronic diseases.)

(3017736 จุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย)

3019870    วิทยาศาสตร์ประยุกต์ทางโสต นาสิก ลาริงซ์วิทยาคลินิก    Applied Science in Clinical Otolaryngology

กายวิภาคศาสตร์เกี่ยวกับการผ่าตัดบริเวณศรีษะและคอ พยาธิวิทยาและรังสีวินิจของโรคทางระบบโสต นาสิก ลาริงซ์วิทยา รังสีรักษาของโรคมะเร็งบริเวณ ศรีษะและคอ

(Surgical anatomy of head and neck, pathology and radio-diagnosis in otolarngologic diseases, radiotherapy of head and neck cancers.)

(3019870 จุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย)

3103602    การผลิตปศุสัตว์ประยุกต์    Applied Livestock Production

ฝึกปฏิบัติการวางแผนการผลิตโค สุกร และสัตว์ปีก การใช้เครื่องมือ การเลือกใช้อาหาร การบันทึก และการวิเคราะห์ข้อมูลที่เกี่ยวข้องกับการผลิตด้วยคอมพิวเตอร์

(Practice in planning of cattle, pig, and poultry production, use of the equipments, feeding selection, computerized recording and analysis of animal production data.)

(3103602 จุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย)

3104712    เภสัชจลนศาสตร์ประยุกต์ในทางสัตวแพทยศาสตร์    Applied Pharmacokinetics in Veterinary Practice

หลักการและแบบฝึกหัดการคำนวณทางเภสัชจลนศาสตร์ ความแตกต่างของค่าทางเภสัชจลนศาสตร์ที่มีผลต่อการตอบสนองฤทธิ์ของยาในสัตว์ต่างชนิดและสายพันธุ์ การนำหลักการทางเภสัชจลนศาสตร์มาประยุกต์ใช้ในการ อธิบาย และแก้ไขปัญหาทางคลินิก การวัดระดับยาในเลือด การปรับขนาด และความถี่การให้ยาในสัตว์ป่วยที่มีตับหรือไตบกพร่อง

(Pharmacokinetic principles and calculation exercises; variation of pharmacokinetic data and drug response in different species and strains of animals; application of pharmacokinetics in describing and solving clinical problems; drug monitoring; dose and dosage interval adjustment in patients with hepatic or renal impairment.)

(3104712 จุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย)

3105700    ชีววิทยาระดับโมเลกุลประยุกต์    Applied Molecular Biology

โครงสร้างองค์ประกอบการรักษาสภาพ และการแสดงออกของข้อมูลทางพันธุกรรมในระดับโมเลกุล กลไกระดับยีนในการสร้างโปรตีน การซ่อมแซมดีเอ็นเอ การเพิ่มจำนวนดีเอ็นเอ ดีเอ็นเอดีคอมบิแนนช์ โครงสร้างองค์ประกอบ หน้าที่และการควบคุม การทำงานของเซลล์ระดับโมเลกุล การใช้เทคนิคทางชีววิทยาระดับโมเลกุลในงานวิจัยทางชีววิทยาทางการแพทย์

(Molecular level of the organization, maintenance, and expression of the genetic information of the cell; basic genetic mechanisms of protein synthesis; DNA repairment; DNA replication; DNA recombination; molecular organization, composition, function of cells and regulation; use of molecular biological methods in biological research.)

(3105700 จุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย)

3107728    ภูมิคุ้มกันวิทยาประยุกต์ของสัตว์ปีก    Applied Avian Immunology

ระบบภูมิคุ้มกันของสัตว์ปีกตั้งแต่ระดับโมเลกุล วิธีการตรวจและวินิจฉัย โรคสัตว์ปีกโดยอาศัยวิทยาการด้านภูมิคุ้มกัน รวมทั้งการแปลและอธิบายผลการทดสอบเพื่อที่จะนำผลที่ได้มาใช้ในการควบคุมและป้องกัน ตลอดจนใช้เป็นแนวทางในการวางแผนในการควบคุมและป้องกันโรคในฝูงสัตว์ปีก

(Avian immune system especially level, serological diagnosis, interpretation and discussion of the laboratory results, setting the guidelines for disease prevention and control.)

(3107728 จุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย)

3109708    จุลชีววิทยาประยุกต์    Applied Microbiology

ประยุกต์ความรู้ทางจุลชีววิทยา สำหรับการวิเคราะห์คุณภาพของอาหาร น้ำ และนม

(Application of microbiology for analysis of food , water and milk.)

(3109708 จุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย)

3110613    วิทยาภูมิคุ้มกันประยุกต์ทางคลินิก    Applied Clinical Immunology

การวิเคราะห์และอภิปรายปัญหาทางคลินิกที่เกี่ยวข้องกับวิทยาภูมิคุ้มกัน

(Analysis of and discussion on the selected clinical problems related to immunology.)

(3110613 จุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย)

3110755    จุลชีววิทยาประยุกต์ทางการสัตวแพทย์    Applied Veterinary Microbiology

การวิจัยและพัฒนางานด้านจุลชีววิทยาทางการสัตวแพทย์เพื่อประยุกต์ใช้เป็นเทคโนโลยีชีวภาพในการควบคุมและป้องกันโรคสัตว์ การเพิ่มผลผลิตปศุสัตว์ และสนับสนุนงานด้านเกษตรอินทรีย์ รวมทั้งงานด้านความปลอดภัยของอาหาร บทบาทของจุลชีววิทยาทางการสัตวแพทย์ในการวิเคราะห์ความเสี่ยงของจุลินทรีย์ที่ก่อโรคอาหารเป็นพิษ

(The research and development of veterinary microbiology that has been used as biotechnology. the varieties of applied microbiological technologies which have been implemented in food-animal industries for disease control and prevention, animal production improvement, and assuring the food safety; the role of veterinary microbiology in risk analysis of food-bome pathogens.)

(3110755 จุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย)

3141501    กายวิภาคศาสตร์ประยุกต์ทางการสัตวแพทย์    Applied Veterinary Anatomy

สัณฐานวิทยา โครงสร้างพื้นฐาน และตำแหน่งของอวัยวะต่างๆ ของสัตว์ โดยเน้นความสัมพันธ์กับทางคลินิกเพื่อใช้ในการวินิจฉัย รักษา และพยากรณ์ความผิดปกติและโรคในสัตว์ ปฏิบัติการโดยใช้สัตว์ดองน้ำยาและสัตว์มีชีวิต การศึกษาดูงานตามสถานที่ต่างๆ และการสาธิตทางวีดิทัศน์

(Morphology, basic structures and locations of various organs of animals, with emphasis on the relationship with the clinic for the diagnosis, treatment and prognosis of abnormalities and diseases in animals; laboratory using embalmed and live animal specimen; field trips in various places and demonstrations on video tape.)

(3141501 จุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย)

3142510    พิษวิทยาประยุกต์ทางการสัตวแพทย์    Applied Veterinary Toxicology

การเปลี่ยนแปลงทางพิษวิทยาของอวัยวะในระบบต่าง ๆ ของสัตว์ที่ได้รับอันตรายจากสารพิษ กลไกการเกิดพิษและผลของสารพิษต่อการทำงานของระบบต่าง ๆ การแก้ไขความเป็นพิษ

(Toxicological changes of various organs in systems of animals suffered from toxicants, mechanism of action and effects of toxicants on functions of various systems, therapy and management.)

(3142510 จุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย)

3201701    กายวิภาคศาสตร์ประยุกต์บริเวณศีรษะและลำคอ    Applied Anatomy of Head and Neck

กายวิภาค โครงสร้างของกะโหลกศีรษะ ศีรษะและคอ ที่เกี่ยวข้องกับรูปร่าง หน้าที่ปกติของระบบบดเคี้ยว การเจริญของใบหน้าทั้งที่ปกติและผิดปกติ และหน้าที่ของประสาทสมองพร้อมทั้งพยาธิสภาพ ประยุกต์ใช้ในการวิเคราะห์โรค และการบำบัดรักษาในทางทันตแพทยศาสตร์

(Anatomy, skeleton and structures of skull, head and neck in related to morphology, normal function of masticatory system, normal and abnormal facel development, functions and lesions of cranial nerves, application in diagnosis and treatment in the dental sciences.)

(3201701 จุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย)

3208716    ทันตวัสดุศาสตร์ประยุกต์ 1    Applied Dental Material Sciences I

ส่วนประกอบและคุณสมบัติพื้นฐานของทันตวัสดุและอุปกรณ์ที่ใช้ในทางทันตกรรมหัตถการ รวมถึงความจำเพาะและมาตรฐานทางทันตกรรม และการนำคุณสมบัติเหล่านี้มาประยุกต์ใช้ในทางทันตกรรมหัตถการ

(Emphasizes on principles of selecting permanent restorative dental materials and other materials concerning the restorative procedures by determining indications, proper manipulations, compositions, physical and biological properties, and advantages and disadvantages of those materials.)

(3208716 จุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย)

3208717    ทันตวัสดุศาสตร์ประยุกต์ 2    Applied Dental Material Sciences II

หลักการใช้วัสดุบูรณะฟันชนิดต่างๆ รวมทั้งทันตกรรมวัสดุชนิดอื่นๆ ที่เกี่ยวข้องกับงานทันตกรรมหัตถการ โดนศึกษาคุณสมบัติเชิงกล คุณสมบัติทางกายภาพและชีวภาพ ตลอดจนข้อดี และการนำมาใช้อย่างถูกต้อง

(Studies on principles of selection of permanent restorative dental materials by determining compositions, physical and biological properties, and advantages and disadvantages of those materials.)

(3208717 จุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย)

3208733    ทันตกรรมหัตถการคลินิกประยุกต์ 1    Applied Clinical Operative Dentistry I

การวางแผนการรักษาและวิธีการบูรณะฟันโดยการใช้วัสดุชนิดต่างๆ ที่เหมาะสมเพื่อให้ได้ผลสูงสุดในการใช้งาน รวมถึงการดูแลรักษาสุขภาพช่องปากและฟันที่ได้รับการบูรณะ

(Treatment planning and restorative procedures by applying appropriate materials in order to achieve ultimate results, maintenance of good oral hygiene and restored teeth.)

(3208733 จุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย)

3208734    ทันตกรรมหัตถการคลินิกประยุกต์ 2    Applied Clinical Operative Dentistry II

การประยุกต์วิธีการบูรณะฟันโดยใช้วัสดุต่างๆ เพื่อให้บรรลุวัตถุประสงค์ทั้งในด้านความสวยงามประสิทธิผลในการทำหน้าที่ รวมทั้งความสามารถเลือกใช้วัสดุบูรณะฟันได้ถูกต้องและเหมาะสมกับสภาวะของฟันแต่ละซี่

(Applied restorative procedures of various restorative materials to fulfill purposes of esthetics, effective function and capability to select proper materials.)

(3208734 จุฬาลงกรณ์มหาวิทยาลัย)