Pelargonium graveolens is a species in the Pelargonium genus, which is indigenous to various parts of southern Africa, and in particular South Africa. It is often called geranium as it falls within the plant family Geraniaceae, although more correctly, it is referred to as Pelargonium. This specific species has great importance in the perfume industry. It is cultivated on a large scale and its foliage is distilled for its scent. P. graveolens cultivars have a wide variety of smells, including rose, citrus, mint, coconut and nutmeg, as well as various fruits. However, the most commercially important varieties are those that have rose scents.

Common names include rose geranium, old fashion rose geranium, and rose-scent geranium. Pelargonium graveolens is also known by taxonomic synonyms “Geranium terebinthinaceum Cav.” and Pelargonium terebinthinaceum (Cav.) Desf.” “Rose geranium” is sometimes used to refer to “Pelargonium incrassatum (Andrews) Sims” or its synonym “Pelargonium roseum – the herbal name- (Andrews) DC.”  Commercial vendors often list the source of geranium or rose geranium essential oil as Pelargonium graveolens regardless of its herbal botanical name.

Pelargonium distillates and absolutes, commonly known as “geranium oil,” is sold for aromatherapy and massage therapy applications is sometimes used to supplement or adulterate more expensive rose oils. Other applications include

• Natural insect repellent
• Cake ingredient (flowers and leaves)
• Jam and jellies ingredient (flowers and leaves)
• Ice creams and Sorbets ingredient (flowers and leaves)
• Salad ingredient (flowers)
• Claimed that its fragrance purified unhealthy indoor air and able to keep diseases out.
• Sugar flavoring (leaves)
• The fresh leaves are used as a flavoring agent for tea in Iraq

(info and pictures from Wikipedia)

Rose geranium essential oil (Pelargonium roseum asperum) is a pale yellow to pale green liquid displaying a sweet, fresh, green-leafy, roseaceous bouquet with a delicate herbaceous/minty undertone.

In natural perfumery used in fougere, chypre, high class florals, green notes, herbal bouquets, new mown hay.

(info courtesy of White Lotus Aromatics Blog)

There are four main species of Boswellia which produce true frankincense and each type of resin is available in various grades. The grades depend on the time of harvesting, and the resin is hand-sorted for quality.

Frankincense is tapped from the very scraggy but hardy Boswellia tree by slashing the bark, which is called striping, and allowing the exuded resins to bleed out and harden. These hardened resins are called tears. There are numerous species and varieties of frankincense trees, each producing a slightly different type of resin. Differences in soil and climate create even more diversity of the resin, even within the same species.

Frankincense trees are also considered unusual for their ability to grow in environments so unforgiving that they sometimes grow directly out of solid rock. The means of initial attachment to the stone is not known but is accomplished by a bulbous disk-like swelling of the trunk. This disk-like growth at the base of the tree prevents it from being torn away from the rock during the violent storms that frequent the region they grow in. This feature is slight or absent in trees grown in rocky soil or gravel. The tears from these hardy survivors are considered superior for their more fragrant aroma.

The trees start producing resin when they are about 8 to 10 years old.  Tapping is done 2 to 3 times a year with the final taps producing the best tears due to their higher aromatic terpene, sesquiterpene and diterpene content. Generally speaking, the more opaque resins are the best quality. Although fine resin is also produced more extensively in Yemen and along the northern coast of Somalia, from which the Roman Catholic Church draws its supplies.

Recent studies have indicated that frankincense tree populations are declining, partly due to over-exploitation. Heavily tapped trees have been found to produce seeds that germinate at only 16% while seeds of trees that had not been tapped germinate at more than 80%. In addition, burning, grazing, and attacks by the longhorn beetle have reduced the tree population.

Frankincense has been traded on the Arabian Peninsula and in North Africa for more than 5000 years.  A mural depicting sacks of frankincense traded from the Land of Punt adorns the walls of the temple of ancient Egyptian Queen Hatshepsut, who died in circa 1458 BCE.

Frankincense was a part of the Ketoret which is used when referring to the consecrated incense described in the Hebrew Bible and Talmud. It is also referred to as the HaKetoret (the incense). It was offered on the specialized incense altar in the time when the Tabernacle was located in the First and Second Jerusalem Temples. The ketoret was an important component of the Temple service in Jerusalem. It is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible book of Exodus 30:34, where it is named levonah (lebonah in Biblical_Hebrew), meaning “white” in Hebrew.

“While burning incense was accepted as a practice in the later Roman Catholic church, the early church during Roman times forbade the use of incense in services resulting in a rapid decline in the incense trade.”

Frankincense was reintroduced to Europe by Frankish Crusaders (Frank-incense). Although it is better known as “frankincense” to westerners, the resin is also known as olibanum, which is derived from the Arabic al-lubān (roughly translated: “that which results from milking”), a reference to the milky sap tapped from the Boswellia tree. Some have also postulated that the name comes from the Arabic term for “Oil of Lebanon” since Lebanon was the place where the resin was sold and traded with Europeans.

The lost city of Ubar, sometimes identified with Irem in what is now the town of Shisr in Oman, is believed to have been a center of the frankincense trade along the recently rediscovered “Incense Road”. Ubar was rediscovered in the early 1990s and is now under archaeological excavation.

The Greek historian Herodotus was familiar with Frankincense and knew it was harvested from trees in southern Arabia. He reports, however, that the gum was dangerous to harvest because of venomous snakes that lived in the trees. He goes on to describe the method used by the Arabians to get around this problem, that being the burning of the gum of the styrax tree whose smoke would drive the snakes away.  The resin is also mentioned by Theophrastus and by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia.

Southern Arabia was a major exporter of frankincense in ancient times, with some of it being traded as far as China. The Chinese writer and customs inspector Zhao Rugua wrote on the origin of Frankincense being traded to China:

“Ruxiang or xunluxiang comes from the three Dashi countries of Murbat (Maloba), Shihr (Shihe), and Dhofar (Nufa), from the depths of the remotest mountains.  The tree which yields this drug may generally be compared to the pine tree. Its trunk is notched with a hatchet, upon which the resin flows out, and, when hardened, turns into incense, which is gathered and made into lumps. It is transported on elephants to the Dashi (on the coast), who then load it upon their ships to exchange it for other commodities in Sanfoqi. This is the reason why it is commonly collected at and known as a product of Sanfoqi.”

Ruxiang was the Chinese name for frankincense, and Dashi the Chinese name for Arabia.

Frankincense comes in many types, and its quality is based on color, purity, aroma, age, and shape. Silver and Hojari are generally considered the highest grades of frankincense. The Omanis themselves generally consider Silver to be a better grade than Hojari, though most Western connoisseurs think that it should be the other way round. This may be due to climatic conditions with the Hojari smelling best in the relatively cold, damp climate of Europe and North America, whereas Silver may well be more suited to the hot dry conditions of Arabia.

Local market information in Oman suggests that the term Hojari encompasses a broad range of high-end frankincense including Silver. Resin value is determined not only by fragrance but also by color and clump size, with lighter color and larger clumps being more highly prized. The most valuable Hojari frankincense locally available in Oman is even more expensive than Somalia’s Maydi frankincense derived from B. frereana (see below). The vast majority of this ultra-high-end B. sacra frankincense is purchased by His Majesty Sultan Qaboos bin Said the ruler of Oman, and is notoriously difficult for western buyers to correctly identify and purchase.

Frankincense is used in perfumery and aromatherapy. Frankincense essential oil is obtained by steam distillation of the dry resin. Some of the smell of the frankincense smoke is due to the products of pyrolysis.

Frankincense is lavishly used in many Christian Churches including the Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and Catholic Churches. According to the gospel of Matthew 2:11, gold, frankincense, and myrrh were among the gifts to Jesus by the Biblical Magi “from out of the East.”

The Egyptians ground the charred resin into a powder called kohl. Kohl was used to make the distinctive black eyeliner seen on so many figures in Egyptian art. The aroma of frankincense is said to represent life and the Judaic, Christian, and Islamic faiths have often used frankincense mixed with oils to anoint newborn infants and individuals considered to be moving into a new phase in their spiritual lives.

The growth of Christianity depressed the market for frankincense during the 4th century AD. Desertification made the caravan routes across the Rub’ al Khali or “Empty Quarter” of the Arabian Peninsula more difficult. Additionally, increased raiding by the nomadic Parthians in the Near East caused the frankincense trade to dry up after about A.D. 300.

Frankincense resin is edible and often used in various traditional medicines in Asia for digestion and healthy skin. Edible frankincense must be pure for internal consumption, meaning it should be translucent, with no black or brown impurities. It is often light yellow with a (very) slight greenish tint. It is often chewed like gum, but it is stickier because it is a resin.

In Ayurvedic medicine Indian frankincense (Boswellia serrata), commonly referred to as “dhoop,” has been used for hundreds of years for treating arthritis, healing wounds, strengthening the female hormone system, and purifying the atmosphere from undesirable germs. The use of frankincense in Ayurveda is called “dhoopan“. In Indian culture, it is suggested that burning frankincense daily in the house brings good health.

Burning frankincense repels mosquitoes and thus helps protect people and animals from mosquito-borne illnesses, such as malaria, West Nile Virus, and Dengue Fever.

The essential oil of frankincense is produced by steam distillation of the tree resin. The oil’s chemical components are 75% monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, monoterpenoles, sesquiterpenols, and ketones. It has a good balsamic and sweet fragrance, while the Indian frankincense oil has a very fresh smell.

Olibanum is characterized by a balsamic-spicy, slightly lemon, and typical fragrance of incense, with a slightly conifer-like undertone. It is used in the perfume as well as cosmetics and pharmaceuticals industries.

Standardized preparations of Indian frankincense from Boswellia serrata are being investigated in scientific studies as a treatment for chronic inflammatory diseases such as Crohn’s disease, ulcerative colitis, and osteoarthritis.  Initial clinical study results indicate efficacy of incense preparations for Crohn’s disease.  For therapy trials in ulcerative colitis, asthma, and rheumatoid arthritis there are only isolated reports and pilot studies from which there is not yet sufficient evidence of safety and efficacy. Similarly, the long-term effects and side effects of taking frankincense has not yet been scientifically investigated. Boswellic acid in vitro anti-proliferative effects on various tumor cell lines (such as melanoma, glioblastomas, liver cancer) are based on induction of apoptosis. A positive effect has been found in the use of incense on the accompanying specimens of brain tumors, although in smaller clinical trials. Some scientists say the results are due to methodological flaws. The main active compound of Indian incense is viewed as being boswellic acid.

As of May 2008 FASEB Journal announced that Johns Hopkins University and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem have determined that frankincense smoke is a psychoactive drug that relieves depression and anxiety in mice.  The researchers found that the chemical compound incensole acetate is responsible for the effects.

In a different study, an enriched extract of “Indian Frankincense” (usually Boswellia serrata) was used in a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled study of patients with osteoarthritis. Patients receiving the extract showed significant improvement in their arthritis in as little as seven days. The compound caused no major adverse effects and, according to the study authors, is safe for human consumption and long-term use.

In a study published in March 2009 by the University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center it was reported that “Frankincense oil appears to distinguish cancerous from normal bladder cells and suppress cancer cell viability.”

These are some of the chemical compounds present in frankincense:

• “acid resin (56 per cent), soluble in alcohol and having the formula C₂₀H₃₂O₄“
• gum (similar to gum arabic) 30–36%
• 3-acetyl-beta-boswellic acid (Boswellia sacra)
• alpha-boswellic acid (Boswellia sacra)
• 4-O-methyl-glucuronic acid (Boswellia sacra)
• incensole acetate
• phellandrene

(info and pictures from Wikipedia)

Somalian frankincense essential oil (Boswellia carterii) is a colorless to pale yellow liquid displaying a fresh, sweet resinous-terpenic bouquet with a delightful sweet, balsamic undertone

In natural perfumery used in sacred perfumes, incense bouquets, ayurvedic preparations, aromatherapy blends, Oriental bouquets, resinous accord, colognes, high class florals, amber accords

“It gives delightful effects in citrus colognes where it modifies the sweetness of bergamot and orange oils. A similar efferct is obtained in rather difficult ‘fresh’ perfume notes such as verbena, citrus etc where olibanum and citral form useful bases for further modifying work. Olibanum oil in itself is a base for all the ‘incense’ or ‘olibanum’ type perfumes and specialities and it is an important ingredient in many Oriental bases, ambres, ‘powder’ type perfumes, floral perfumes, citrus colognes, spice blends, violet perfumes, ‘men’s fragrances, etc” Steffen Arctander

Indian frankincense essential oil (Boswellia serrata) is a colorless to pale yellow liquid displaying a green, resinous,peppery coniferous bouquet with a delicate balsamic-citrus undertone of short duration.

In natural perfumery used in incense bouquets, sacred perfumes, forest notes, chypre, colognes, Oriental bases, amber accords, ayurvedic preparations, aromatherapy blends. It works primarily as a topnote material.

Frankincense co2 select (Boswellia carterii) is a light yellow liquid displaying a soft, suave, sweet, resinous bouquet with a delicate fresh-green, citrus, powdery-floral undertone. The topnote is much softer than the essential oil but the heart/base note is more complex and tenacious. As the dryout proceeds the true beauty of the co2 extract is revealed.

In natural perfumery extensively used in sacred perfumes, incense notes, oriental bouquets, amber bases, forest notes,holiday creations, spice accords.

(info from White Lotus Aromatics Blog)

It is a small shrub, growing to 1–2 m tall. The leaves are alternate, simple, 3–5 cm long and broad, and palmately lobed with five lobes, with a serrated margin. The flowers are 4–6 mm diameter, with five reddish-green to brownish petals; they are produced in racemes 5–10 cm long.

When not in fruit, the plant looks similar to the redcurrant shrub, distinguished by a strong fragrance from leaves and stems. The fruit is an edible berry 1 cm diameter, very dark purple in colour, almost black, with a glossy skin and a persistent calyx at the apex, and containing several seeds dense in nutrients. An established bush can produce up to 5 kilograms of berries during summer.

Plants from Asia are sometimes distinguished as a separate variety, Ribes nigrum var. sibiricum, or even as a distinct species Ribes cyathiforme.

There are many cultivars of blackcurrant, including: Amos Black, Ben Alder, Ben Avon, Ben Connan, Ben Dorain, Ben Gairn, Ben Hope, Ben Lomond, Ben Loyal, Ben More, Ben Sarek, Ben Tirran, Ben Zona, Big Ben, Boskoop Giant, Cotswold Cross and Wellington XXX.

New varieties are being developed continually to improve frost tolerance, disease resistance, machine harvesting, fruit quality, nutritional content and fruit flavour. Two new releases from a black currant breeding program in British Columbia, Canada – Blackcomb and Tahsis – were selected for their immunity to White Pine Blister Rust and frost tolerance.

Varieties producing green fruit, less strongly flavoured and sweeter than typical blackcurrants, are cultivated in Finland, where they are called “greencurrants” (viherherukka).

Pre-plant preparation It is important that there is complete weed eradication for one season before planting. The use of herbicides for broadleaf weeds and grass is recommended. Additionally the soil should be tested for nematodes; fumigation may be recommended for areas with a significant presence of virus vector nematodes.

Growers should assess general fertility of planting site (e.g. nutrients, pH) to ensure the site meets the recommended planting conditions as outlined in the corresponding growers’ guide (www.berrycrops.net). Manage crop requirements with annual soil sample indicating raspberries as the crop being tested (nobody will know the requirements for Ribes); Amend pH to 6 – 6.5.

Access to adequate irrigation and drainage are very important to consider before planting.

Pest controls – See BC Currant and gooseberry pest control guide or extension agents for approved controls

Weed control – Growers can use organic mulch (including sawdust and straw), heavy plastic with an organic mulch cover, or landscape fabric as means of suppressing weed growth. If chemical herbicides are to be used, check with Agriculture Extension people to ensure the use of registered and appropriate substances.

Pruning – annual pruning of old wood and shoots that are less than ~45 degrees to the ground is critical to crop management and machine harvest. Often if pruning of leaning shoots is neglected, the weight of the fruit they bear will bring them to the ground where the fruit will rot or be damaged. Pruning can be done by hand or mechanically.

Disease Ribes plants are susceptible to an array of diseases, including the most prominent, white pine blister rust and mildew . There are, however, new varieties being developed, or have already been developed, to overcome some of these diseases:

White Pine Blister Rust – immunity: Tahsis, Blackcomb (BC breeding program – MBC) Mildew – resistance: Whistler, Blackcomb, Tahsis, Nechako

Currant and gooseberry leaf spot (Drepanopeziza ribis) is another disease, but it is not usually a serious problem for most varieties developed through prominent breeding programs.

During World War II, most fruits rich in vitamin C, such as oranges, became almost impossible to obtain in the United Kingdom. Since blackcurrant berries are a rich source of vitamin C and blackcurrant plants are suitable for growing in the UK climate, blackcurrant cultivation was encouraged by the British government. Soon, the yield of the nation’s crop increased significantly. From 1942 on, almost the entire British blackcurrant crop was made into blackcurrant syrup (or cordial) and distributed to the nation’s children free, giving rise to the lasting popularity of blackcurrant flavourings in Britain.

Blackcurrants were once popular in the United States as well, but became rare in the 20th century after currant farming was banned in the early 1900s, when blackcurrants, as a vector of white pine blister rust, were considered a threat to the U.S. logging industry.  The federal ban on growing currants was shifted to jurisdiction of individual states in 1966, and was lifted in New York State in 2003 through the efforts of horticulturist Greg Quinn. As a result, currant growing is making a comeback in New York, Vermont, Connecticut and Oregon.  However, several statewide bans still exist including Maine and New Hampshire.

Since the American federal ban ceased currant production nationally for nearly a century, the fruit remains largely unknown in the United States, and has yet to regain its previous popularity to levels enjoyed in Europe or New Zealand. Owing to its unique flavour and richness in polyphenols, dietary fibre and essential nutrients, awareness and popularity of blackcurrant is once again growing, with a number of consumer products entering the market.

The fruit has extraordinarily high vitamin C content (302% of the Daily Value per 100 g, table), good levels of potassium, phosphorus, iron and vitamin B₅, and a broad range of other essential nutrients (nutrient table, right).

Other phytochemicals in the fruit (polyphenols/anthocyanins) have been demonstrated in laboratory experiments with potential to inhibit inflammation mechanisms suspected to be at the origin of heart disease, cancer, microbial infections or neurological disorders like Alzheimer’s disease.  Major anthocyanins in blackcurrant pomace are delphinidin-3-O-glucoside, delphinidin-3-O-rutinoside, cyanidin-3-O-glucoside, and cyanidin-3-O-rutinoside which are retained in the juice concentrate among other yet unidentified polyphenols.

Blackcurrant seed oil is also rich in many nutrients, especially vitamin E and several unsaturated fatty acids including alpha-linolenic acid and gamma-linolenic acid.  In a human pilot study, ingestion of blackcurrant seed oil by mothers reduced atopic dermatitis in their breast-fed newborns who were supplemented with the oil over two years.

In the UK, blackcurrant cordial is often mixed with cider (hard cider) to make a drink called “Cider and Black” or if made with the popular British cider Strongbow a “Bow and Black”. If made with any common British lager beer, it is known as a “Lager and Black”. The addition of blackcurrant to a mix of cider and lager results in “Diesel” or “Snakebite and Black” available at pubs. Adding a small amount of blackcurrant juice to Guinness is preferred by some to heighten the taste of the popular stout. Macerated blackcurrants are also the primary ingredient in the apéritif crème de cassis. Japan imports $3.6 million of New Zealand blackcurrants for uses as dietary supplements, snacks, functional food products and as quick-frozen (IQF) produce for culinary production as jams, jellies or preserves.  In Russia, blackcurrant leaves may be used for flavouring tea or preserves. Sweetened vodka may also be infused with blackcurrant leaves or berries, making a deep yellowish-green beverage with a sharp flavour and astringent taste.

Besides being juiced and used in jellies, syrups, and cordials, blackcurrants are also used in cooking because their astringency creates flavour in many sauces, meat dishes, and desserts.

It was once thought that currants needed to be “topped and tailed” (the flower remnants and the stalks removed) before cooking.  This is not the case, though, as these parts are easily assimilated during the cooking process. If one prefers, the whole blackcurrant stem and fruit can be frozen, then shaken vigorously. The tops and tails will break off, and the fruit can then be easily separated.

Ribena, a non-carbonated soft drink flavored with blackcurrants, takes its name from Ribes.

Blackcurrant berries have a distinctive sweet and sharp taste popular in jam, juice, ice cream, and liqueur. They are a common ingredient of Rødgrød, a popular kissel-like dessert in North German and Danish cuisines. In the UK, Europe and Commonwealth countries, some types of confectionery include a blackcurrant flavour, and in Belgium and the Netherlands, cassis is a flavoured currant soft drink. In the United States, blackcurrant flavour is rather rare in candies and jellies compared to UK sweets. In the United States, grape flavour is often used in brands of candy where blackcurrant would appear in Europe. Blackcurrant liqueur mixed with white wine is called Kir or Kir Royale when mixed with Champagne.

(info and pictures from Wikipedia)

Black Currant Absolute is a dark green grainy solid mass displaying an intense green, resinous, fruity odor with a spicy-woody undertone. In the dryout phase the resinous note melds beautifully with the spicy-woody note creating a soft sweet elegant landing for the absolute

In natural perfumery can have a wide range of applications in providing unique notes to amber bases; ambergris re-creations; new mown hay; herbaceous perfumes; incense notes; oriental notes; tea perfumes; culinary creations; in high class florals as an accent note; forest bouquets. It is one of those unique absolute that can infuse a special life into a perfume creation. A little bit can have a profound effect on any perfume into which it is incorporated.

(info from White Lotus Aromatics Blog)

It grows to 70–150 cm tall. The leaves have a gentle lemon scent, related to mint. During summer, small white flowers full of nectar appear. These attract bees, hence the genus name Melissa (Greek for ‘honey bee’). Its flavour comes from citronellal (24%), geranial (16%), linalyl acetate (12%) and caryophyllene (12%).

This herb can be easy to cultivate in Plant Hardiness Zones 4 to 9 according to the United States Department of Agriculture. In zone 4, it needs well-drained sandy soil and a winter mulch or adequate snowcover to survive. In zone 7, it can be harvested at least until the end of November. While it prefers full sun (as described on most plant tags), it is moderately shade-tolerant, much more so than most herbs. In dry climates, it grows best in partial shade. It can also be easily grown as an indoor potted herb.

In North America, Melissa officinalis has escaped cultivation and spread into the wild.

Lemon balm requires light and at least 20 degrees Celsius (70 degrees Fahrenheit) to germinate, so it is best to plant indoors or in spring and not to cover the seeds.

Lemon balm grows in clumps and spreads vegetatively as well as by seed. In mild temperate zones, the stems of the plant die off at the start of the winter, but shoot up again in spring. It can be easily grown from stem cuttings rooted in water, or from seeds. Under ideal conditions, it will seed itself prolifically and can become a nuisance in gardens.

Melissa officinalis may be the “honey-leaf” (μελισσόφυλλον) mentioned by Theophrastus.  It was in the herbal garden of John Gerard, 1596.  There are many cultivars of Melissa officinalis, such as:

• M. officinalis ‘Citronella’
• M. officinalis ‘Lemonella’
• M. officinalis ‘Quedlinburger’
• M. officinalis ‘Lime’
• M. officinalis ‘Variegata’
• M. officinalis ‘Aurea’

(M. officinalis ‘Quedlinburger Niederliegende’ is an Improved variety bred for high essential oil content.)

Lemon balm is often used as a flavouring in ice cream and herbal teas, both hot and iced, often in combination with other herbs such as spearmint. It is also frequently paired with fruit dishes or candies. It can be used in fish dishes and is the key ingredient in lemon balm pesto. It has been suggested that it might be a better, healthier preservative than beta hydroxy acid in sausages.

The crushed leaves, when rubbed on the skin, are used as a repellant for mosquitos.

Lemon balm is also used medicinally as an herbal tea, or in extract form. It is claimed to have antibacterial and antiviral properties (it is effective against herpes simplex).

It is also used as an anxiolytic, mild sedative or calming agent. At least one study has found it to be effective at reducing stress, although the study’s authors call for further research.  Lemon balm extract was identified as a potent inhibitor of GABA transaminase, which explains anxiolytic effects. The major compound responsible for GABA transaminase inhibition activity in lemon balm is rosmarinic acid.

Lemon balm and preparations thereof also have been shown to improve mood and mental performance. These effects are believed to involve muscarinic and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.  Positive results have been achieved in a small clinical trial involving Alzheimer patients with mild to moderate symptoms.

Its antibacterial properties have also been demonstrated scientifically, although they are markedly weaker than those from a number of other plants studied.  The extract of lemon balm was also found to have exceptionally high antioxidant activity.

Lemon balm is mentioned in the scientific journal Endocrinology, where it is explained that Melissa officinalis exhibits antithyrotropic activity, inhibiting TSH from attaching to TSH receptors, hence making it of possible use in the treatment of Graves’ disease or hyperthyroidism.

Lemon balm essential oil is very popular in aromatherapy. The essential oil is commonly co-distilled with lemon oil, citronella oil, or other oils.

Lemon balm is used in some variations of the Colgate Herbal toothpaste for its soothing and aromatic properties.

Lemon balm should be avoided by those on thyroid medication (such as thyroxine), as it is believed the herb inhibits the absorption of this medicine.

Despite extensive traditional medicinal use, melissa oil was initially prohibited by the International Fragrance Association (IFRA)’s 43rd amendment, but this restriction appears to have been revisited and relaxed in the 44th amendment.

One traditional use of lemon balm tea was in extending age, although this effect has not been proven.Ob-X, a mixture of three herbs, Morus alba, M. officinalis, and Artemisia capillaris, may help regulate obesity. Ob-X reduces body weight gain and visceral adipose tissue mass in genetically obese mice.

Recent research found a daily dose of the tea reduced oxidative stress status in radiology staff that were exposed to persistent low-dose radiation during work. After only 30 days of taking the tea daily researchers found Lemon balm tea resulted in a significant improvement in plasma levels of catalase, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione peroxidase and a marked reduction in plasma DNA damage, myeloperoxidase, and lipid peroxidation.

Lemon balm was found to be effective in the amelioration of laboratory-induced stress in human subjects, producing “significantly increased self-ratings of calmness and reduced self-ratings of alertness.” The authors further report a “significant increase in the speed of mathematical processing, with no reduction in accuracy” following the administration of a 300 mg dose.

Lemon balm contains eugenol, which kills bacteria and has been shown to calm muscles and numb tissues. It also contains tannins that contribute to its antiviral effects, as well as terpenes that add to its soothing effects.

Melissa officinalis also contains 1-octen-3-ol, 10-alpha-cadinol, 3-octanol, 3-octanone, alpha-cubebene, alpha-humulene, beta-bourbonene, caffeic acid, caryophyllene, caryophyllene oxide, catechinene, chlorogenic acid, cis-3-hexenol, cis-ocimene, citral A, citral B, citronellal, copaene, delta-cadinene, eugenyl acetate, gamma-cadinene, geranial, geraniol, geranyl acetate, germacrene D, isogeranial, linalool, luteolin-7-glucoside, methylheptenone, neral, nerol, octyl benzoate, oleanolic acid, pomolic acid, protocatechuic acid, rhamnazine, rosmarinic acid, rosmarinin acid, stachyose, succinic acid, thymol, trans-ocimene and ursolic acid.

Lemon balm essential oil is colorless to pale yellow liquid displaying a rich, sweet green, herbaceous bouquet with a soft floral, citrus undertone

In natural perfumery used in aromatherapy creations, high class colognes, citrus accords, herbaceous notes.

(info from White Lotus Aromatics Blog)

The plant is used to flavor foods, in tisanes, perfumes, and cosmetics.  It is used to make a rinse for blonde hair, and is popular in aromatherapy, whose practitioners believe it to be a calming agent to end stress and aid in sleep.^{[citation needed]}

The word chamomile comes from Greek χαμαίμηλον (chamaimēlon), “earth-apple”, from χαμαί (chamai), “on the ground” + μήλον (mēlon), “apple”, so called because of the applelike scent of the plant. (Note: The “ch-” spelling is used especially in science and pharmacology.)

Chamomile is mentioned in Shakespeare’s Henry IV, part 1 ‘The Camomile; The more it is trodden on, the faster it grows’.

Mary Wesley’s novel The Camomile Lawn was also televised in Great Britain in the 1990s.

The lawns of Buckingham Palace, London use camomile instead of grass.

Use of chamomile dates back as far as ancient Egypt where it was dedicated to their gods.  Folk remedies using the plant include treatments for dropsy and jaundice. It was also believed to revive any wilting plant placed near it.  The flowers were also used as a dye to lighten hair.

Chamomile is considered to be an antiseptic, antibiotic, disinfectant, bactericidal & vermifuge.

(info and pictures from Wikipedia)

Blue chamomile oil (Matricaria chamomilla, M.recutita) is a blue to greenish blue liquid displaying a sweet, herbaceous, coumarinic bouquet with a warm fruity, balsamic undertone of good tenacity

In natural perfumery used in fruit accords, herbaceous bouquets, high class florals, apothecary blends

“True chamomile oil is usedin very small percentages in high-class perfumes to introduce a warm, rich undertone which lasts through all stages of evaporation.” Steffen Arctander

The essential oil of Wild chamomile (Ormenis multicaulis syn Ormenis mixta) is a pale yellow liquid displaying a sweet fruity, balsamic,, herbacoeus bouquet with a honeyed, ambery, powdery undertone of good duration

In natural perfumery would find use chypre, fougere, citrus cologne, herbaceous cologne, ambre bases, floral-herbaceous creations, geographical perfumes

“The oil finds application in citrus-colognes, ambre, chypre and fougere-bases, as well in in a multitude of other bases where a fresh modification of ambre-herbaceous notes are called for(lavender, pine, etc) Even trace amounts of this oil may introduce a delightful topnote in herbaceous or herbaceous-floral fragrance.”
Steffen Arctander

English chamomile essential oil is a clear to pale blue liquid displaying a delicate, fresh sweet, herbaceous bouquet with a fruity, balsamic undertone

In natural perfumery used in herbaceous notes, high class florals, apothecary blends, colognes, fougere, chypre

“It imparts a warm, yet fresh note and a natural depth which is difficult to obtain by other means” Steffen Arctander

(info from White Lotus Aromatics Blog)

A. rosaeodora grows in the tropical rainforests of South America. It is found in the Brazilian states of Amapá, Amazonas, and Pará.  It is also found in Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, Venezuela, and French Guiana, where it was formerly more widespread.  It is massive, up to 30 meters in height and 2 meters in diameter, and evergreen. The entire tree is fragrant. Substances in the tree include linalool and rubranine.  The flowers are perfect, with temporal dioecy. The fruit is a purple drupe dispersed by toucans.

It has 24 chromosomes.  Gene flow is high between wild populations.

The plant is one of the commercially important sources of rosewood oil. The tree is collected in the wild. After felling, the trees are cut into one–meter long logs which are taken to the riverbank and stockpiled there. When river levels are high enough, the logs are floated downriver to a distillery. Because of the remoteness and difficulty of travel in the Amazon, distilleries are often mobile, movable by raft. When they arrive at the distillery, the logs are chipped and then steam distilled. Each tree yields about 1% oil by weight of wood. Most worldwide production comes from Brazil; since the 1960s, other areas produce only a minor, insignificant amount. Trees are taken from near the Amazon and its tributaries.

Rosewood oil is a valuable essential oil, especially in perfumery. It contains the substance linalool, which has a number of uses. The wood may be utilized by the indigenous peoples of the Amazon basin for the purposes of making canoes, but this is a minor use. In addition, old chips are used as fuel to run the distilleries. Since the name Rosewood can be used for very disttinctive kinds of timber, South American Rosewood, a different species, especially Brazilian (Dalbergia nigra), also known as Jacaranda, is the most desirable tonewood for acoustic guitars and other instruments. The Aniba rosaeodora is khown as Pau-Rosa in Brazil. The supply of this wood was greatly overused in the past and it now is as difficult to legally trade as elephant ivory.

A. rosaeodora is an endangered species. Populations have declined rapidly due to the destructive harvesting methods. Areas previously logged have not seen much regrowth.  It might even be critically endangered.  Wild populations exist in remote locations, which are hence unlikely to be exploited.

The Brazilian government has enacted regulations to help conserve the species. There have been difficulties with enforcement. Early experiments in artificial cultivation and propagation were failures. More recent attempts have been more successful.  It, or rather its wood and essential oil, is on Appendix II of CITES.  If the leaves could be used as a source, it would help conserve the species.  It has been suggested that production methods be altered to ensure a sustainable supply.  It is also listed on the Official list of endangered flora of Brazil.

(info and pictures via Wikipedia)

Rosewood essential oil (Aniba rosaeodora) is a colorless to pale yellow liquid with a suave, sweet, woody-roseaceous odor with a spicy-floral undertone

In natural perfumery it is used in floral notes(muguet, neroli, lilac, sweet pea), precious woods bases, incense perfumes and as a general fixative due to its mild, suave, rounded character.

(info via White Lotus Aromatics Blog)

In Chinese languages and the languages of neighboring countries, black tea is known as “red tea” (紅茶, Mandarin Chinese hóngchá; Japanese kōcha; 홍차, Korean hongcha), a description of the colour of the liquid; the term black tea refers to the colour of the oxidized leaves. In Chinese, “black tea” is a commonly used classification for post-fermented teas, such as Pu-erh tea; in the Western world, “red tea” more commonly refers to rooibos, a South African tisane.

While green tea usually loses its flavor within a year, black tea retains its flavour for several years. For this reason, it has long been an article of trade, and compressed bricks of black tea even served as a form of de facto currency in Mongolia, Tibet, and Siberia into the 19th century.  Although green tea has recently seen a revival due to its purported health benefits, black tea still accounts for over ninety percent of all tea sold in the West.

1. After the harvest, the leaves are first withered by blowing air on them.
2. Then black teas are processed in either of two ways, CTC (Crush, Tear, Curl) or orthodox.The CTC method produces leaves of fannings or dust grades that are commonly used in tea bags and are processed by machines. This method is efficient and effective for producing a better quality product from medium and lower quality leaves of consistently dark color. Orthodox processing is done either by machines or by hand. Hand processing is used for high quality teas. While the methods employed in orthodox processing differ by tea type, this style of processing results in the high quality loose tea sought by many connoisseurs. The tea leaves are allowed to completely oxidize.
   • Orthodox: The withered tea leaves are heavily rolled either by hand or mechanically through the use of a cylindrical rolling table or a rotovane. The rolling table consists of a ridged table-top moving in an eccentric manner to a large hopper of tea leaves, of which the leaves are pressed down onto the table-top. The process produces a mixture of whole and broken leaves, and particles which are then sorted, oxidized, and dried. The rotorvane (rotovane), created by Ian McTear in 1957 can be used to replicate the orthodox process.  The rotovane consisted on an auger pushing withered tea leaves through a vane cylinder which crushes and evenly cuts the leaves, however the process is more recently superseded by the boruah continuous roller, which consists of a oscillating conical roller around the inside a ridged cylinder.  The rotorvane can consistently duplicate broken orthodox processed black tea of even sized broken leaves, however it cannot produce whole leaf black tea.  The broken leaves and particles from the orthodox method can feed into the CTC method for further processing into fanning or dust grade teas.
   • CTC: “Cut, tear, curl” or “Crush, tear, curl” black teas is a production method developed by William McKercher in 1930. It is consider by some as a significantly improved method of producing black tea to the orthodox through the mincing of wither tea leaves.  The use of a rotovane to precut the withered tea is a common preprocessing method prior to feeding into the CTC.  CTC machines then further shred the leaves from the rotavane by processing them through several series of contra-rotation rotors with surfaces patterning that cut and tear the leaves to very fine particles.
3. Next, the leaves are oxidized under controlled temperature and humidity. (This process is also called “fermentation”, which is a misnomer since no actual fermentation takes place.) The level of oxidation determines the quality of the tea. This can be done on the floor in batches or an a conveyor bed with air flow for proper oxidation and temperature control. Since oxidation begins at the rolling stage itself, the time between these stages is also a crucial factor in the quality of the tea however fast processing of the tea leaves through continuous methods can effectively make this a separate step.
4. Then the leaves are dried to arrest the oxidation process.
5. Finally, the leaves are sorted into grades according to their sizes (whole leaf, brokens, fannings and dust), usually with the use of sieves. The tea could be further sub-graded according to other criteria.

The tea is then ready for packaging.

Black tea is usually graded on one of four scales of quality. Whole leaf teas are highest quality followed by broken leaves, fannings, and dusts. Whole leaf teas are produced with little or no alteration to the tea leaf. This results in a finished product with a coarser texture than that of bagged teas. Whole leaf teas are widely considered the most valuable, especially if they contain leaf tips. Broken leaves are commonly sold as medium grade loose teas. Smaller broken varieties may be included in tea bags. Fannings are usually small particles of tea left over from the production of larger tea varieties, but are occasionally manufactured specifically for use in bagged teas. Dusts are the finest particles of tea left over from production of the above varieties, and are often used for tea bags with very fast, very harsh brews. Fannings and dust are useful in bagged teas because the greater surface area of the many particles allows for a fast, complete diffusion of the tea into the water. Fannings and dusts usually have a darker colour, lack of sweetness, and stronger flavor when brewed.

Generally, 2.25 grams of tea per 180 ml of water, or about a teaspoon of black tea per 6 oz. cup, should be used. Unlike green teas, which turn bitter when brewed at higher temperatures, black tea should be steeped in freshly boiled water. The more delicate black teas, such as Darjeeling, should be steeped for 3 to 4 minutes. The same holds for broken leaf teas, which have more surface area and need less brewing time than whole leaves. Whole leaf black teas, and black teas that will be served with milk or lemon, should be steeped 4 to 5 minutes.  Longer steeping times make the tea bitter (at this point, in the UK it is referred to as being “stewed”). When the tea has brewed long enough to suit the tastes of the drinker, it should be strained while serving.

The ISO Standard 3103 defines how to brew tea for tasting.

Plain black tea without sweeteners or additives contains negligible quantities of calories, protein, sodium, and fat. Some flavored tea with different herbs added may have less than 1 gram of carbohydrates. All teas from the camellia tea plant are rich in polyphenols, which are a type of antioxidant.

A 2001 Boston University study has concluded that short and long-term black tea consumption reverses endothelial vasomotor dysfunction in patients with coronary artery disease. This finding may partly explain the association between tea intake and decreased cardiovascular disease events.

In 2006, a German study concluded that the addition of milk prevents vascular protective effects of tea.

Theaflavin-3-gallate, a theaflavin derivative found in black tea, could reduce the incorporation of cholesterol into mixed micelles.

(info and pictures from Wikipedia)

Black Tea Absolute is a black viscous non-pourable(at room temperature) displaying a soft, delicate, sweet, herbaceous, woody, bouquet.

In general perfumery it is used to produce “sweet herbaceous notes in certain floral perfumes. e.g. jasmine, orange blossom, gardenia, freesia,etc, and to produce new effects in woody aldehydic perfumes of the non-floral type. As an intensifier of clary sage, melaleuca bracteata, michelia leaf oil, or other tea like fragrances, it is unsurpassed in naturalness.” Steffen Arctander

(info from White Lotus Aromatics)

Probably indigenous to India or Arabia, Acorus calamus is now found across Europe, southern Russia, northern Asia Minor, southern Siberia, China, Indonesia, Japan, Burma, Sri Lanka, Australia, as well as southern Canada and the northern United States, where it may be confused with diploid Acorus americanus.

The morphological distinction between the Acorus species is made by the number of prominent leaf veins. Acorus calamus has a single prominent midvein and then on both sides slightly raised secondary veins (with a diameter less than half the midvein) and many fine tertiary veins. This makes it clearly distinct from Acorus americanus.

The leaves are between 0.7 and 1.7 cm wide, with average of 1 cm. The sympodial leaf of Acorus calamus is somewhat shorter than the vegetative leaves. The margin is curly-edged or undulate. The spadix, at the time of expansion, can reach a length between 4.9 and 8.9 cm (longer than A. americanus). The flowers are longer too, between 3 and 4 mm. Acorus calamus is infertile and shows an abortive ovary with a shriveled appearance.

Acorus americanus was formerly classified as Acorus calamus var. americanus. It differs in being a fertile diploid (2n = 24)], whereas most of the A. calamus of Europe and Asia is a sterile triploid species, that only spreads asexually. Diploid plants in northern Asia may be part of A. americanus.  Also as a diploid it does not produce b-asarone.

One subspecies, Acorus calamus var. angustatus Besser, Synonyms: Acorus asiaticus, Acorus cochinchinensis, Acorus latifolius, Acorus rumphianus, Acorus spurius, Acorus triqueter, Acorus tatarinowii, Acorus terrestris, Orontium cochinchinense, Acorus calamus var. spurius, Acorus gramineus var. crassispadix.

A. calamus and products derived from A. calamus (such as its oil) were banned in 1968 as food additives and medicines by the United States Food and Drug Administration.  This ban was the result of lab studies that involved supplementing the diets of lab animals over a prolonged period of time with massive doses of isolated chemicals (β-asarone) from the Indian Jammu strain of calamus. The animals developed tumors, and the plant was labeled procarcinogenic.  Wichtl says “It is not clear whether the observed carcinogenic effects in rats are relevant to the human organism.”  However, most sources advise caution in ingesting strains other than the diploid strain.

Four varieties of Acorus calamus strains exist in nature; diploid, triploid, tetraploid and hexaploid.  Diploids do not produce the procarcinogenic β-asarone. Diploids are known to grow naturally in Eastern Asia (Mongolia and Central Siberian Plateau) and North America. The triploid cytotype probably originated in the Himalayan region, as a hybrid between the diploid and tetraploid cytotypes.  The North American Calamus is known as Acorus Calamus var. Americanus or more recently as simply Acorus Americanus. Like the diploid strains of calamus in parts of the Himalayas, Mongolia, and C Siberia, the North American diploid strain does not contain the procarcinogenic β-asarone.  Research has consistently demonstrated that “β-asarone was not detectable in the North American spontaneous diploid Acorus [Calamus var. Americanus]”.

In reality β-asarone is not actually a carcinogen but it is a procarcinogen that is neither hepatotoxic nor directly hepatocarcinogenic. It must first undergo metabolic l’-hydroxylation in the liver before achieving toxicity. Cyrochrome P450 in the hepatocytes is responsible for secreting the hydrolyzing enzymes that convert β-asarone into genotoxic epoxide structure.  Even with the activation of these metabolites, the carcinogenic potency is very low due to the rapid breakdown of epoxide residues with hydrolase which leaves these compounds inert (Luo, 1992). Additionally, the major metabolite of β-asarone is 2,4,5-trimethoxyninnamic acid, a derivative which is not a carcinogen (Hasheminejad & Caldwell, 1999).

A. Calamus has been an item of trade in many cultures for thousands of years. It has been used medicinally for a wide variety of ailments, and its aroma makes calamus essential oil valued in the perfume industry. In Britain the plant was also cut for use as a sweet smelling floor covering for the packed earth floors of medieval dwellings and churches, and stacks of rushes have been used as the centrepiece of rushbearing ceremonies for many hundreds of years.  It has also been used as a thatching material for English cottages.

In antiquity in the Orient and Egypt, the rhizome was thought to be a powerful aphrodisiac. In Europe Acorus calamus was often added to wine, and the root is also one of the possible ingredients of absinthe. Among the northern Native Americans, it is used both medicinally and as a stimulant. It is believed by some that calamus is a hallucinogen. This urban legend is based solely on two pages of a book written by Hoffer and Osmund entitled The Hallucinogens. The information on these two pages came from anecdotal reports from two individuals (a husband and wife) who reported that they had ingested calamus on a few occasions.   None of the components in calamus are converted to TMA (trimethoxyamphetamine) in the human organism.  To date there is no solid evidence of any hallucinogenic substances in calamus. Acorus calamus shows neuroprotective effect against stroke and chemically induced neurodegeneration in rat. Specifically, it has protective effect against acrylamide induced neurotoxicity.

The essence from the rhizome is used as a flavor for pipe tobacco. When eaten in crystallized form, it is called “German ginger”. It’s also used in bitters.

For the Penobscot people this was a very important root. One story goes that a sickness was plaguing the people. A muskrat spirit came to a man in dream, telling him that he (the muskrat) was a root and where to find him. The man awoke, found the root, and made a medicine which cured the people. In Penobscot homes, pieces of the dried root were strung together and hung up for preservation. Steaming it throughout the home was thought to “kill” sickness. While traveling, a piece of root was kept and chewed to ward off illness.

Teton-Dakota warriors chewed the root to a paste, which they rubbed on their faces. It was thought to prevent excitement and fear when facing an enemy.

The Potawatomi people powdered the dried root and placed this up the nose to cure catarrh.

Sweet flag has a very long history of medicinal use in Chinese and Indian herbal traditions.  It is widely employed in modern herbal medicine as its sedative, laxative, diuretic, and carminative properties.  It is used in Ayurveda to counter the side effects of all hallucinogens.  Sweet Flag is one of the most widely and frequently used herbal medicines amongst the Chipewyan people.

Both roots and leaves of A. calamus have shown antioxidant, antimicrobial and insecticidal activities.

Acorus calamus may prove to be an effective control measure against cattle tick, Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus.

Both triploid and tetraploid A. calamus contain alpha-asarone.  Other phytochemicals include:

• Beta-asarone
• eugenol

Diploids do not contain beta-asarone (β-asarone).  A recent study showed that beta-asarone isolated from Acorus calamus oil inhibits adipogenesis in 3T3-L1 cells and thus reduces lipid accumulation in fat cells.

The calamus has long been a symbol of love. The name is associated with a Greek myth: Kalamos, son of the river-god Maeander, who loved the youth Karpos, of Zephyrus (the West Wind) and Chloris (Spring). When Karpos drowned in a swimming race, Kalamos also drowned and was transformed into a reed, whose rustling in the wind was interpreted as a sigh of lamentation.

The plant was a favorite of Henry David Thoreau (who called it “sweet flag”), and also of Walt Whitman, who added a section called the “Calamus” poems, to the third edition of Leaves of Grass (1860). In the poems the calamus is used as a symbol of love, lust, and affection.

The name Sweet Flag refers to its sweet scent (it has been used as a strewing herb) and the wavy edges of the leaves which are supposed to resemble a fluttering flag.

Cognates of the Latin word calamus (meaning “cane”) are found in both Greek (kalamos, meaning “reed”) and Sanskrit (kalama, meaning “reed” and “pen” as well as a sort of rice) — strong evidence that the word is older than all three languages and exists in their parent language, Proto-Indo European. The Arabic word qalam (meaning “pen”) is likely to have been borrowed from one of these languages in antiquity, or directly from Indo-European itself.

From the Latin root “calamus”, a number of modern English words arise:

• calamari, meaning “squid”, via the Latincalamarium, “ink horn” or “pen case”, as reeds were then used as writing implements;
• calumet, another name for the Native American peace pipe, which was often made from a hollow reed;
• shawm, a medieval oboe-like instrument (whose sound is produced by a vibrating reed mouthpiece);
• chalumeau register, the lower notes of a clarinet’s range (another reed instrument).

(info and pictures from Wikipedia)

Calamus oil is a pale yellow liquid displaying a smooth, warm , woody-earthy-spicy bouquet with a milky, sweet undertone of very good tenacity

In natural perfumery used in Oriental bouquets, ambre bases, leather accords, incense notes, ayurvedic preparations

(info from White Lotus Aromatics Blog)

Artabotrys odoratissimus, ylang-ylang vine, and Artabotrys hexapetalus, climbing ylang-ylang, are woody, evergreen climbing plants in the same family; A. odoratissimus is also a source of perfume.

Cananga odorata is a fast-growing tree of the custard-apple family, Annonaceae, that exceeds 5 m (15 ft) per year and attains an average height of 12 m (40 ft). It grows in full or partial sun, and prefers the acidic soils of its native rainforest habitat. The evergreen leaves are smooth and glossy, oval, pointed, with wavy margins, and 13–20 cm (5–8 in) long. The flower is drooping, long-stalked, with six narrow greenish yellow (rarely pink) petals, rather like a sea star in appearance, and yields a highly fragrant essential oil.

Cananga odorata var. fruticosa, dwarf ylang-ylang, grows as small tree or compact shrub with highly scented flowers.

Ylang-ylang has been cultivated in temperate climates under conservatory conditions.

Its clusters of black fruit are an important food item for birds, such as the Collared Imperial-pigeon, Purple-tailed Imperial-pigeon, Zoe’s Imperial-pigeon, Superb Fruit-dove, Pink-spotted Fruit-dove, Coroneted Fruit-dove, Orange-bellied Fruit-dove, and Wompoo Fruit-dove.

Typical chemical compositions of the various grades of Ylang ylang are reported as follows:

• Linalool
• Germacrene
• Geranyl acetate
• Caryophyllene
• p-cresyl methyl ether
• Methyl benzoate
• Sesquiterpenes

The name ylang-ylang is derived from Tagalog, either from the word ilang, meaning “wilderness”, alluding to its natural habitat, or the word ilang-ilan, meaning “rare”, suggestive of its exceptionally delicate scent.   A more widely accepted translation is “flower of flowers”.  The plant is native to the Philippines and Indonesia and is commonly grown in Polynesia, Melanesia, Micronesia and Comoros Islands.

The fragrance of ylang-ylang is rich and deep with notes of rubber and custard, and bright with hints of jasmine and neroli. The essential oil of the flower is obtained through steam distillation of the flowers and separated into different grades (extra; 1; 2; 3) according to when the distillates are obtained. The main aromatic components of ylang-ylang oil are benzyl acetate, linalool, p-cresyl methyl ether, and methyl benzoate, responsible for its characteristic odor.

The essential oil of ylang-ylang is used in aromatherapy. It is believed to relieve high blood pressure, normalize sebum secretion for skin problems, and is considered to be an aphrodisiac.According to Margaret Mead, it was used as such by South Pacific natives such as the Samoan Islands where she did much of her research. The oil from ylang-ylang is widely used in perfumery for oriental or floral themed perfumes (like Chanel No. 5). Ylang-ylang blends well with most floral, fruit and wood smells.

In Indonesia, ylang-ylang flowers are spread on the bed of newlywed couples. In the Philippines, its flowers, together with the flowers of the sampaguita, are strung into a necklace (lei) and worn by women and used to adorn religious images.

Ylang-ylang’s essential oil makes up 29% of the Comoros’ annual export (1998).

Ylang Ylang is a common ingredient in the herbal motion sickness product MotionEaze.

(info and pictures from Wikipedia)

Ylang absolute is a light green to gold liquid with a bright, rich, sweet, balsamic-floral bouqet with a elegant spicy-vanillic-fruity undertone

In natural perfumery it is used in high class florals, Oriental bouquets, garland perfumes

Ylang complete essential oil is a light yellow liquid which is produced by an unbroken distillation of the flowers over a period of 12 hours or more(as compared with the fractionated oil i.e. ylang extra, ylang 1, ylang 2 and ylang 3)
The complete oil displays a rich, sweet, creamy-floral bouquet with a fine balsamic-woody undertone

In natural perfumery it is used in Oriental and Tropical Bouquets, high class florals, fruit notes, culinary perfumes

(info from White Lotus Aromatics Blog)

The heavy and strong scent of patchouli has been used for centuries in perfumes, and more recently in incense, insect repellents, and alternative medicines. The word derives from the Tamil patchai (Tamil: பச்சை) (green), ellai (Tamil: இலை) (leaf).  In Assamese it is known as xukloti.

Pogostemon cablin, P. commosum, P. hortensis, P. heyneasus and P. plectranthoides are all cultivated for their oils and all are known as patchouli oil.

Patchouli grows well in warm to tropical climates. It thrives in hot weather, but not direct sunlight. If the plant withers due to lack of watering, it will recover well and quickly after it has been watered. The seed-producing flowers are very fragrant and bloom in late fall. The tiny seeds may be harvested for planting, but they are very delicate and easily crushed. Cuttings from the mother plant can also be rooted in water to produce additional plants.

Extraction of patchouli’s essential oil is by steam distillation, requiring rupture of its cell walls by steam scalding, light fermentation, or drying.

Leaves may be harvested several times a year, and when dried may be exported for distillation. Some sources claim a highest quality oil is usually produced from fresh leaves distilled close to where they are harvested; others that baling the dried leaves and fermenting them for a period of time is best.

Aroma profile

• Germacrene-B
  
• Patchoulol
• Norpatchoulenol

Patchouli is used widely in modern perfumery and modern scented industrial products such as paper towels, laundry detergents, and air fresheners. Two important components of its essential oil are patchoulol and norpatchoulenol. From the 1960s until today, it is a favored scent by members of the counterculture.

In several Asian countries, such as Japan and Malaysia, patchouli is used as an antidote for venomous snakebites.  The plant and oil have many claimed health benefits in herbal folk-lore and the scent is used to induce relaxation.  Chinese medicine uses the herb to treat headaches, colds, nausea, diarrhea, and abdominal pain.  Patchouli oil can be purchased from mainstream Western pharmacies and alternative therapy sources as an aromatherapy oil.

One study suggests patchouli oil may serve as an all-purpose insect repellent.  More specifically, the patchouli plant is claimed to be a repellent potent against the Formosan subterranean termite.

During the 18th and 19th century, silk traders from China traveling to the Middle East packed their silk cloth with dried patchouli leaves to prevent moths from laying their eggs on the cloth.  It has also been proven to effectively prevent female moths from adhering to males, and vice versa. Many historians speculate that this association with opulent Eastern goods is why patchouli was considered by Europeans of that era to be a luxurious scent. It is said that patchouli was used in the linen chests of Queen Victoria in this way.

Patchouli is an important ingredient in East Asian incense. Both patchouli oil and incense underwent a surge in popularity in the 1960s and 1970s in the US and Europe, mainly due to the hippie movement of those decades.

(info and pictures from Wikipedia)

Patchouli essential oil displays a range of colors and odors depending on the way in which the leaves are fermented, the age of the oil, the type of equipment distilled in, method of growth etc-so I will do my best to describe the patchouli essential oils we have in stock.

Patchouli essential oil(aged 5 years)conventianal- Indonesia
The 5 year aged patchouli is a golden liquid displaying a very rich, sweet, balsamic, herbaceous aroma with a woody, mossy, earthy undertone. Tenacity is very good. Its overall character is sweeter more ethereal-herbaceous than the other patchouli’s we offer.

Patchouli essential oil(aged 2 years) organic-Indonesia
The 2 year aged patchouli is an amber colored liquid displaying a rich, earthy, herbaceous aroma with a woody, rooty, slightly animalic undertone. Tenacity is very good. Its overall character is heavier, more earthy-herbaceous than the other patchouli’s we offer

Patchouli esssential oil (iron free because distilled in stainless steel vessels) organic-Indonesia
Iron free patchouli is a light amber colored liquid displaying a rich, sweet, balsamic, herbaceous aroma with a fine earthy, woody, slighty minty undertone

Patchouli, dark(dark because distilled in old fashioned crude iron vessels) essential organic-Indonesia
Dark patchouli is quite similar to the iron free patchouli with its rich, balsamic-herbaceous bouquet and earthy, woody, minty undertone. It is in my opinion a bit deeper in its undertone notes

Patchouli essential oil is used extensively in natural perfumery including Oriental bases, fougere, chypre , incense notes, culinary perfumes, precious woods bases, sacred perfume.

(info from White Lotus Aromatics Blog)

Oakmoss is commercially harvested in countries of South-Central Europe and usually exported to the Grasse region of France where its fragrant compounds are extracted as Oakmoss absolutes and extracts. These raw materials are often used as perfume fixatives and form the base notes of many fragrances. They are also key components of Fougère and Chypre class perfumes. The lichen has a distinct and complex odor and can be described as woody, sharp and slightly sweet. Oakmoss growing on pines have a pronounced turpentine odor that is valued in certain perfume compositions.

(info and pictures from Wikipedia)

Oakmoss absolute(Evernia prunastri) is a dark green waxy grainy solid displaying a green, powdery, earthy, mossy, rooty, dried bark odor with a mild, punguent phenolic/tarlike, oceanic undertone. The tenacity of the absolute is excellent.

In natural perfumery used in forest notes, amber bases, leather notes, chypre, fougere, new mown hay, oriental bases, colognes, historical perfumes

(info from White Lotus Aromatics Blog)

Jasmines are deciduous (falling in autumn) or evergreen (green all year round) erect, spreading, or climbing shrubs and vines. Their leaves are borne opposite or alternate. They can be simple, trifoliate, or pinnate. The flowers are typically around 2.5 cm (0.98 in) in diameter. They are white or yellow in color, though in rare instances they can be slightly reddish. The flowers are borne in cymose clusters with a minimum of three flowers, though they can also be solitary on ends of branchlets. Each flower has about four to nine petals, two locules, and one to four ovules. They have two stamens with very short filaments. The bracts are linear or ovate. The calyx is bell-shaped. They are usually very fragrant. The fruits of jasmines are berries that turn black when ripe.

The basic chromosome number of the genus is 13, and most species are diploid (2n=26). However, natural polyploidy exists, particularly in Jasminum sambac (2n=39), Jasminum flexile (2n=52), Jasminum primulinum (2n=39), and Jasminum angustifolium (2n=52).

Jasmines are native to tropical and subtropical regions of Europe, Africa, Asia, and Australasia.  Their center of diversity, however, is in South and Southeast Asia.

Some species have common names that do not match their region of origin. Jasminum sambac, for example, has the English common names of “Arabian jasmine” or “Tuscan jasmine”. However, it is not native to the Arabian peninsula or Western India as is commonly perceived. It is native to Southeast Asia.  The Spanish jasmine or Catalonian jasmine (Jasminum grandiflorum), is another example. It is not native to the Iberian peninsula but was originally from Iran (Persia) and western South Asia.

Jasminum fluminense (which is sometimes known by the inaccurate name “Brazilian Jasmine”) and Jasminum dichotomum (Gold Coast Jasmine) are invasive species in Hawaii and Florida.  Jasminum polyanthum also known as White Jasmine is an invasive weed in Australia.

Species belonging to genus Jasminum are classified under the tribe Jasmineae of the olive family (Oleaceae). Jasminum is divided into five sections—Alternifolia, Jasminum, Primulina, Trifoliolata, and Unifoliolata.

The genus name is derived from the Persian Yasameen (“gift from God”) through Arabic and Latin.

Species include:

• Jasminum abyssinicum Hochst. ex DC. – Forest jasmine
• Jasminum adenophyllum Wall. – Pinwheel Jasmine, Bluegrape jasmine, Princess jasmine, Che vang, Lai la co tuyen
• Jasminum angulare Vahl
• Jasminum auriculatum Vahl
• Jasminum dichotomum Vahl – Gold Coast Jasmine
• Jasminum didymum Primarily Australian, with one subspecies occurring throughout the South Pacific and Australasia
• Jasminum fruticans L. – distributed in South France and mediterranean region
• Jasminum grandiflorum L. – Spanish Jasmine, Royal Jasmine,Catalonian Jasmine
• Jasminum humile L. – Italian Yellow Jasmine
• Jasminum lanceolarium Roxb.
• Jasminum mesnyi Hance – Japanese Jasmine, Primrose Jasmine, Yellow Jasmine^[4]
• Jasminum multiflorum Hance – Indian Jasmine, Winter Jasmine
• Jasminum multipartitum Hochst. – Starry Wild Jasmine
• Jasminum nervosum Lour.
• Jasminum nudiflorum Lindl. – Winter Jasmine
• Jasminum odoratissimum L. – Yellow Jasmine
• Jasminum officinale L. – Common Jasmine, Poet’s Jasmine, jasmine,jessamine
• Jasminum parkeri Dunn – Dwarf Jasmine
• Jasminum polyanthum Franch.
• Jasminum sambac (L.) Aiton – Arabian Jasmine or Sampaguita.
• Jasminum sinense Hemsl.
• Jasminum urophyllum Hemsl.

Widely cultivated for its flowers, jasmine is enjoyed in the garden, as a house plant, and as cut flowers. The flowers are worn by women in their hair in southern and southeast Asia. The delicate jasmine flower opens only at night and may be plucked in the morning when the tiny petals are tightly closed, then stored in a cool place until night. The petals begin to open between six and eight in the evening, as the temperature lowers.

Jasmine tea is consumed in China, where it is called jasmine-flower tea (茉莉花茶; pinyin: mò lì huā chá). Jasminum sambac flowers are also used to make so-called jasmine tea, which often has a base of green tea, but sometimes an Oolong base is used. Flowers and tea are “mated” in machines that control temperature and humidity. It takes four hours or so for the tea to absorb the fragrance and flavour of the jasmine blossoms, and for the highest grades, this process may be repeated as many as seven times. Because the tea has absorbed moisture from the flowers, it must be refired to prevent spoilage. The spent flowers may or may not be removed from the final product, as the flowers are completely dry and contain no aroma. Giant fans are used to blow away and remove the petals from the denser tea leaves. If present, they simply add visual appeal and are no indication of the quality of the tea.

In Okinawa, Japan, jasmine tea is known as sanpin cha (さんぴん茶).

The French are known for their jasmine syrup, most commonly made from an extract of jasmine flowers. In the United States, jasmine syrup is used to make jasmine scones and marshmallows.

Jasmine essential oil is in common use. Its flowers are either extracted by the labour-intensive method of enfleurage or through chemical extraction. It is expensive due to the large number of flowers needed to produce a small amount of oil. The flowers have to be gathered at night because the odour of jasmine is more powerful after dark. The flowers are laid out on cotton cloths soaked in olive oil for several days and then extracted leaving the true jasmine essence. Some of the countries producing jasmine essential oil are India, Egypt, China and Morocco.

Many species also yield an absolute, which is used in perfumes and incense. Its chemical constituents include methyl anthranilate, indole, benzyl alcohol, linalool, and skatole.

Jasmine gave name to the jasmonate plant hormones as methyl jasmonate isolated from the jasmine oil of Jasminum grandiflorum led to the discovery of the molecular structure of jasmonates.

Throughout India, especially in the western and southern states, including Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, jasmine (along with many other flowers, including roses) is cultivated in private homes, within gardens or as potted plants. These flowers are used in regular worship at home as well as for hair ornaments (for the girls and women of the house). Jasmine is also cultivated commercially, for both the domestic purposes discussed above and other purposes (such as use in the perfume industry). It is used in rituals like marriages, Puja and festivals. In the Chandan Yatra of lord Jagannath, the deity is bathed with water flavored in sandalwood paste and jasmine.

Jasmine flower sellers (vendors) selling ready-made garlands of jasmine, or in the case of the thicker motiyaa (in Hindi) or mograa (in Marathi) varietal, bunches of jasmine, as well as flowers by weight, are a common sight on city streets in many parts of India. They may be found around entrances to temples, on major thoroughfares, and in major business areas (including bus stands). This is common as far north as Mumbai, and generally from Maharashtra southward through all of South India. Jasmine vendors may also be found in Kolkata, though roadside sales are fewer there, since in North India women and girls generally, by tradition, do not wear flowers in their hair.

In South India all married women wear it in their hair as symbol of their married status. Unmarried women may also wear it but widows are forbidden to wear it as a symbol.

A change in presidency in Tunisia in 1987 and the Tunisian Revolution of 2011 are both called “Jasmine revolutions” in reference to the flower. Jasmine flowers were also used as a symbol during the 2011 Chinese pro-democracy protests in the People’s Republic of China.

In Syria, jasmine is the symbolic flower of Damascus, which is called the City of Jasmine. In Thailand, jasmine flowers are used as a symbol for motherhood.

“Jasmine” is also popular feminine given name in many countries.

Several countries and states consider jasmine as a national symbol. They are the following:

• Hawaii: Jasminum sambac (“pikake“) is perhaps the most popular of flowers. It is often strung in leis and is the subject of many songs.
• Indonesia: Jasminum sambac is the “puspa bangsa” (national flower), adopted in 1990. It goes by the name “melati putih” and is the most important flower in wedding ceremonies for ethnic Indonesians, especially in the island of Java.
• Pakistan: Jasminum officinale is known as the “chambeli” or “yasmin“, it is the national flower.
• Philippines: Jasminum sambac is the national flower. Adopted in 1935, it is known as “sampaguita” in the islands. It is usually strung in garlands which are then used to adorn religious images.

(info and pictures from Wikipedia)

The distilled essential oil of Jasminum grandiflorum flowers is a pale yellow liquid displaying an soft, ethereal, warm sweet floral bouquet with a fruity, balsamic, honeyed-waxy undertone

Jasminum grandiflorum absolute is a golden brown liquid with an elegant, soft, sweet, ethereal, with floral bouquet with a delicate balsamic-vanillic undertone

Jasmin sambac absolute is a golden grown liquid displaying a warm, sultry, sweet, animalic-floral bouquet with a fruity-tea like undertone

Jasmin flexile absolute is an amber colored liquid with a warm, elegant, sweet, spicy-fruity-floral bouquet with a soft balsamic undertone with good radiance and tenacity

Jasminum auriculatum absolute, known as “Juhi” in India is a light amber colored liquid displaying a refined, sweet, floral-fruity bouquet with a delicate earthy/spicy undertone.

Its application in natural perfumery is comprehensive being used in high class florals, sacred perfumes, culinary essences, sophisticated colognes, garland perfumes

(Info from White Lotus Aromatics Blog)

In the Book of Exodus 30:34, it is mentioned as being used in the making of a Ketoret which is used when referring to the consecrated incense described in the Hebrew Bible and Talmud. It is also referred to as the HaKetoret (the incense). It was offered on the specialized incense altar in the time when the Tabernacle was located in the First and Second Jerusalem Temples. The ketoret was an important component of the Temple service in Jerusalem. Rashi of the 12th century comments on this passage that galabanum is bitter and was included in the incense as a reminder of deliberate and unrepentant sinners.

Galbanum is one of the oldest of drugs.  It is occasionally used in the making of modern perfume, and is the ingredient which gives the distinctive smell to the fragrances “Must” by Cartier, “Vent Vert” by Balmain, “Chanel No. 19″ and “Vol De Nuit” by Guerlain. The debut of Galbanum in fine modern perfumery is generally thought to be the origin of the “Green” family of scents, exemplified by the scent “Vent Vert” first launched by Balmain in 1945.

Hippocrates employed it in medicine, and Pliny (Nat. Hist. xxiv. 13) ascribes to it extraordinary curative powers, concluding his account of it with the assertion that “the very touch of it mixed with oil of spondylium is sufficient to kill a serpent.” The drug is occasionally given in modern medicine, in doses of from five to fifteen grains. It has the actions common to substances containing a resin and a volatile oil. Its use in medicine is, however, obsolete.

The Latin name Ferula derives in part from Ferule which is a schoolmaster’s rod, such as a cane, stick, or flat piece of wood, used in punishing children.  A ferula called narthex (or Giant fennel), which shares the galbanum-like scent, has long, straight and sturdy hollow stalks, which are segmented like bamboo.  They were used as torches in antiquity and it is with such a torch that, according to Greek mythology,  Prometheus, who deceived his father stealing some of his fire, brought fire to humanity.  Bacchae were described using the bamboo-like stalks as weapons.  Such rods were also used for walking sticks, splints, for stirring boiling liquids, and for corporal punishment. Some of the mythology may have transferred to the related galbanum which was referred to as the sacred “mother resin.” Galbanum was highly treasured as a sacred substance by the ancient Egyptians. The “green” incense of Egyptian antiquity is believed to have been galbanum. Galbanum resin has a very intense green scent accompanied by a turpentine odor. The initial notes are a very bitter, acrid, and peculiar scent followed by a complex green, spicy, woody, balsamlike fragrance. When diluted the scent of galbanum has variously been described as reminiscent of pine (due to the pinene and limonene content), evergreen, green bamboo, parsley, green apples, musk, or simply intense green.  The oil has a pine like topnote which is less pronounced in the odor of the resinoid. The latter, in turn, has a more woody balsamic, conifer resinous character.  Galbanum is frequently adulterated with pine oil.

Galbanum oil is steam-distilled to yield a green, fruity-floral odor reminiscent of green apples.

(info and pictures from Wikipedia)

Galbanum essential oil is a clear to light yellow mobile liquid with a lively fresh, green-leafy, pineaceous-resinous bouquet with a woody, soft, sweet balsamic undertone. The radiance of the oil is amazing, rapidly spreading its aromatic aura into the surrounding area.

Galbanum CO2 select extract is a colorless to pale yellow liquid displaying fine, deep, green, balsamic, resinous bouquet with dry, woody, coniferous undertone of excellent tenacity

In perfumery can be used in a wide range of perfumes in minute doses to create unique effects. Chypres, fougeres, forest notes, Oriental bases, precious woods notes, amber accords, incense creations, sacred perfumes all benefit by its presence

(info from White Lotus Aromatics Blog)

Peppermint was first described in 1753 by Carolus Linnaeus from specimens that had been collected in England; he treated it as a species, but it is now universally agreed to be a hybrid.

It is a herbaceous rhizomatous perennial plant growing to 30–90 cm (12–35 in) tall, with smooth stems, square in cross section. The rhizomes are wide-spreading, fleshy, and bare fibrous roots. The leaves are from 4–9 cm (1.6–3.5 in) long and 1.5–4 cm (0.59–1.6 in) cm broad, dark green with reddish veins, and with an acute apex and coarsely toothed margins. The leaves and stems are usually slightly hairy. The flowers are purple, 6–8 mm (0.24–0.31 in) long, with a four-lobed corolla about 5 mm (0.20 in) diameter; they are produced in whorls (verticillasters) around the stem, forming thick, blunt spikes. Flowering is from mid to late summer. The chromosome number is variable, with 2n counts of 66, 72, 84, and 120 recorded.

Peppermint typically occurs in moist habitats, including stream sides and drainage ditches. Being a hybrid, it is usually sterile, producing no seeds and reproducing only vegetatively, spreading by its rhizomes. If placed, it can grow anywhere, with a few exceptions.

Outside of its native range, areas where peppermint was formerly grown for oil often have an abundance of feral plants, and it is considered invasive in Australia, the Galápagos Islands, New Zealand,  and in the United States, in the Great Lakes region, noted since 1843.

Peppermint generally grows best in moist, shaded locations, and expands by underground stolons. Young shoots are taken from old stocks and dibbled into the ground about 1.5 feet apart. They grow quickly and cover the ground with runners if it is permanently moist. For the home gardener, it is often grown in containers to restrict rapid spreading. It grows best with a good supply of water, without being water-logged, and planted in areas with part-sun to shade.

The leaves and flowering tops are used; they are collected as soon as the flowers begin to open and can be dried. The wild form of the plant is less suitable for this purpose, with cultivated plants having been selected for more and better oil content. They may be allowed to lie and wilt a little before distillation, or they may be taken directly to the still.

Peppermint has a long tradition of medicinal use, with archaeological evidence placing its use at least as far back as ten thousand years ago.

Peppermint has a high menthol content, and is often used as tea and for flavouring ice cream, confectionery, chewing gum, and toothpaste. The oil also contains menthone and menthyl esters, particularly menthyl acetate.  Dried peppermint typically has 0.3-0.4% of volatile oil containing menthol (29-48%), menthone (20-31%), menthyl acetate (3-10%), menthofuran (1-7%) and many trace constituents including limonene, pulegone, eucalyptol, and pinene.  It is the oldest and most popular flavour of mint-flavoured confectionery. Peppermint can also be found in some shampoos and soaps, which give the hair a minty scent and produce a cooling sensation on the skin. Used in this way, it has been known to help with insomnia.

One animal study has suggested that Peppermint may have radioprotective effects in patients undergoing cancer treatment.

The aroma of peppermint has been found to enhance memory.  As such, it can be administered by instructors to their students before examinations, to aid recall.

Peppermint flowers are large nectar producers and honey bees as well as other nectar harvesting organisms forage them heavily. A mild, pleasant varietal honey can be produced if there is a sufficient area of plants.

Peppermint oil has a high concentration of natural pesticides, mainly menthone.

In 2007, Italian investigators reported that 75% of the patients in their study who took peppermint oil capsules for four weeks had a major reduction in irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) symptoms, compared with just 38% of those who took a placebo.  A second study in 2010, conducted in Iran, found similar results.  2011 research showed that peppermint acts through a specific anti-pain channel called TRPM8 to reduce pain sensing fibres. The authors feel that this study provides information that is potentially the first step in determining a new type of mainstream clinical treatment for Irritable Bowel Syndrome.

Similarly, some poorly designed earlier trials found that peppermint oil has the ability to reduce colicky abdominal pain due to IBS with an NNT (number needed to treat) around 3.1, but the oil is an irritant to the stomach in the quantity required and therefore needs wrapping for delayed release in the intestine. This could also be achieved by using the whole herb or leaves rather than the volatile components alone. Peppermint relaxes the gastro-esophageal sphincter, thus promoting belching.

Peppermint oil is also used in some Chinese medicines / medicated oils.

The toxicity studies of the plant have received controversial results. Some authors reported that the plant may induce hepatic diseases (liver disease), while others found that it protects against liver damage that is caused by heavy metals.  In addition to that, the toxicities of the plant seem to vary from one cultivar to another and are dose dependent.   This is probably attributed from the content level of pulegone.

A number of cultivars have been selected for garden use:

• Mentha × piperita ‘Candymint’. Stems reddish.
• Mentha × piperita ‘Citrata’ (Includes a number of varieties including Orange Mint, Eau De Cologne Mint, Grapefruit Mint). Leaves aromatic, hairless.
• Mentha × piperita ‘Crispa’. Leaves wrinkled.
• Mentha × piperita ‘Lime Mint’. Foliage lime-scented.
• Mentha × piperita ‘Variegata’. Leaves mottled green and pale yellow.
• Mentha × piperita ‘Chocolate Mint’. Flowers open from bottom up; reminiscent of flavour in Andes Chocolate Mints, a popular confection.

Commercial cultivars may include

• Dulgo pole
• Zefir
• Bulgarian population #2
• Clone 11-6-22
• Clone 80-121-33
• Mitcham Digne 38
• Mitcham Ribecourt 19
• Todd’s#x2019

(info and pictures from Wikipedia)

Peppermint essential oil is a pale yellow or pale olive colored liquid displaying an intense, penetrating, fresh, green-minty aroma with a creamy, sweet balsamic undertone

In natural perfumery used in culinary perfumes, colognes, fougeres, geranium bases, green notes.

(info from White Lotus Aromatics Blog)

Attempts to cultivate the vanilla plant outside Mexico and Central America proved futile because of the symbiotic relationship between the tlilxochitl vine that produced the vanilla orchid and the local species of Melipona bee; it was not until 1837 that Belgian botanist Charles François Antoine Morren discovered this fact and pioneered a method of artificially pollinating the plant. The method proved financially unworkable and was not deployed commercially.  In 1841, Edmond Albius, a 12-year-old slave who lived on the French island of Réunion in the Indian Ocean, discovered the plant could be hand-pollinated. Hand-pollination allowed global cultivation of the plant.

There are currently three major cultivars of vanilla grown globally, all of which derive from a species originally found in Mesoamerica, including parts of modern day Mexico.  The various subspecies are Vanilla planifolia (syn. V. fragrans), grown on Madagascar, Réunion, and other tropical areas along the Indian Ocean; V. tahitensis, grown in the South Pacific; and V. pompona, found in the West Indies, Central, and South America.  The majority of the world’s vanilla is the V. planifolia variety, more commonly known as Bourbon vanilla (after the former name of Réunion, Île Bourbon) or Madagascar vanilla, which is produced in Madagascar and neighboring islands in the southwestern Indian Ocean, and in Indonesia.  Leptotes bicolor is used in the same way in South America.

Vanilla is the second most expensive spice after saffron, because growing the vanilla seed pods is labor-intensive.  Despite the expense, vanilla is highly valued for its flavor, which author Frederic Rosengarten, Jr. described in The Book of Spices as “pure, spicy, and delicate” and its complex floral aroma depicted as a “peculiar bouquet”.  As a result, vanilla is widely used in both commercial and domestic baking, perfume manufacture and aromatherapy.

The Totonac people, who inhabit the Mazatlan Valley on the Gulf Coast of Mexico in the present-day state of Veracruz, were the first to cultivate vanilla. According to Totonac mythology, the tropical orchid was born when Princess Xanat, forbidden by her father from marrying a mortal, fled to the forest with her lover. The lovers were captured and beheaded. Where their blood touched the ground, the vine of the tropical orchid grew.

In the fifteenth century, Aztecs invading from the central highlands of Mexico conquered the Totonacs, and soon developed a taste for the vanilla bean. They named the bean “tlilxochitl“, or “black flower”, after the mature bean, which shrivels and turns black shortly after it is picked. Subjugated by the Aztecs, the Totonacs paid tribute by sending vanilla beans to the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan.

Until the mid-19th century, Mexico was the chief producer of vanilla. In 1819, however, French entrepreneurs shipped vanilla beans to the islands of Réunion and Mauritius in hopes of producing vanilla there. After Edmond Albius discovered how to pollinate the flowers quickly by hand, the pods began to thrive. Soon, the tropical orchids were sent from Réunion Island to the Comoros Islands and Madagascar, along with instructions for pollinating them. By 1898, Madagascar, Réunion, and the Comoros Islands produced 200 metric tons of vanilla beans, about 80% of world production. According to the UN Food & Agriculture Organisation, Madagascar is currently responsible for the vast majority of the world’s bourbon vanilla production and 58% of the world total vanilla bean production.

The market price of vanilla rose dramatically in the late 1970s after a tropical cyclone ravaged key croplands. Prices remained high through the early 1980s despite the introduction of Indonesian vanilla. In the mid-1980s, the cartel that had controlled vanilla prices and distribution since its creation in 1930 disbanded.  Prices dropped 70% over the next few years, to nearly US$20 per kilogram; prices rose sharply again after tropical cyclone Hudah struck Madagascar in April 2000. The cyclone, political instability, and poor weather in the third year drove vanilla prices to an astonishing US$500 per kilogram in 2004, bringing new countries into the vanilla industry. A good crop, coupled with decreased demand caused by the production of imitation vanilla, pushed the market price down to the $40 per kilogram range in the middle of 2005. By 2010, prices were down to US$20/per kilo.

Madagascar (especially the fertile Sava region) accounts for much of the global production of vanilla. Mexico, once the leading producer of natural vanilla, with an annual 500 tons, produced only 10 tons of vanilla in 2006. An estimated 95% of “vanilla” products actually contain artificial vanillin, produced from lignin.

Vanilla was completely unknown in the Old World before Cortez. Spanish explorers arriving on the Gulf Coast of Mexico in the early sixteenth century gave vanilla its current name. Spanish and Portuguese sailors and explorers brought vanilla into Africa and Asia later that century. They called it vainilla, or “little pod”. The word vanilla entered the English language in the 1754, when the botanist Philip Miller wrote about the genus in his Gardener’s Dictionary.  Vainilla is from the diminutive of vaina, from the Latin vagina (sheath) to describe the way the pod must be split open to expose the seeds.

The main species harvested for vanillin is Vanilla planifolia. Although it is native to Mexico, it is now widely grown throughout the tropics. Madagascar is the world’s largest producer. Additional sources include Vanilla pompona and Vanilla tahitiensis (grown in Tahiti and Niue), although the vanillin content of these species is much less than Vanilla planifolia.

Vanilla grows as a vine, climbing up an existing tree (also called a tutor), pole, or other support. It can be grown in a wood (on trees), in a plantation (on trees or poles), or in a “shader”, in increasing orders of productivity. Its growth environment is referred to as its terroir, and includes not only the adjacent plants but also the climate, geography, and local geology. Left alone, it will grow as high as possible on the support, with few flowers. Every year, growers fold the higher parts of the plant downward so the plant stays at heights accessible by a standing human. This also greatly stimulates flowering.

The distinctively flavored compounds are found in the fruit, which results from the pollination of the flower. One flower produces one fruit. Vanilla planifolia flowers are hermaphroditic: They carry both male (anther) and female (stigma) organs; however, to avoid self-pollination, a membrane separates those organs. The flowers can be naturally pollinated only by a specific Melipone bee found in Mexico (abeja de monte or mountain bee). This bee provided Mexico with a 300-year-long monopoly on vanilla production, from the time it was first discovered by Europeans and the French first transplanted the vines to their overseas colonies, until a substitute was found for the bees. The vines would grow, but would not fruit outside of Mexico. Growers tried to bring this bee into other growing locales, to no avail. The only way to produce fruits without the bees is artificial pollination. And today, even in Mexico, hand-pollination is used extensively.

In 1836, botanist Charles François Antoine Morren was drinking coffee on a patio in Papantla (in Veracruz, Mexico) and noticed black bees flying around the vanilla flowers next to his table. He watched their actions closely as they would land and work their way under a flap inside the flower, transferring pollen in the process. Within hours, the flowers closed and several days later, Morren noticed vanilla pods beginning to form. Morren immediately began experimenting with hand-pollination. A few years later in 1841, a simple and efficient artificial hand-pollination method was developed by a 12-year-old slave named Edmond Albius on Réunion, a method still used today. Using a beveled sliver of bamboo, an agricultural worker lifts the membrane separating the anther and the stigma, then, using the thumb, transfers the pollinia from the anther to the stigma. The flower, self-pollinated, will then produce a fruit. The vanilla flower lasts about one day, sometimes less, so growers have to inspect their plantations every day for open flowers, a labor-intensive task.

The fruit, a seed capsule, if left on the plant, will ripen and open at the end; as it dries, the phenolic compounds crystallize, giving the beans a diamond-dusted appearance, which the French call givre (hoarfrost). It will then release the distinctive vanilla smell. The fruit contains tiny, flavorless seeds. In dishes prepared with whole natural vanilla, these seeds are recognizable as black specks.

Like other orchids’ seeds, vanilla seed will not germinate without the presence of certain mycorrhizal fungi. Instead, growers reproduce the plant by cutting: they remove sections of the vine with six or more leaf nodes, a root opposite each leaf. The two lower leaves are removed, and this area is buried in loose soil at the base of a support. The remaining upper roots will cling to the support, and often grow down into the soil. Growth is rapid under good conditions.

Bourbon vanilla or Bourbon-Madagascar vanilla, produced from V. planifolia plants introduced from the Americas, is the term used for vanilla from Indian Ocean islands such as Madagascar, the Comoros, and Réunion, formerly the Île Bourbon.

Mexican vanilla, made from the native V. planifolia, is produced in much less quantity and marketed as the vanilla from the land of its origin. Vanilla sold in tourist markets around Mexico is sometimes not actual vanilla extract, but is mixed with an extract of the tonka bean, which contains coumarin. Tonka bean extract smells and tastes like vanilla, but coumarin has been shown to cause liver damage in lab animals and is banned in food in the US by the Food and Drug Administration.

Tahitian vanilla is the name for vanilla from French Polynesia, made with the V. tahitiensis strain. Genetic analysis shows that this species is possibly a cultivar from a hybrid-cross of V. planifolia and V. odorata. The species was introduced by French Admiral François Alphonse Hamelin to French Polynesia from the Philippines, where it was introduced from Guatemala by the Manila Galleon trade.

West Indian vanilla is made from the V. pompona strain grown in the Caribbean, Central and South America.

The term French vanilla is often used to designate preparations that have a strong vanilla aroma, contain vanilla grains and may also contain eggs (especially egg yolks). The appellation originates from the French style of making vanilla ice cream with a custard base, using vanilla pods, cream, and egg yolks. (The egg yolks are essential to French vanilla ice cream, as they provide its signature pale yellow color; whereas ordinary vanilla ice cream contains no eggs and, thus, is white.) Inclusion of vanilla varietals from any of the former or current French dependencies noted for their exports may in fact be a part of the flavoring, though it may often be coincidental. Alternatively, French vanilla is taken to refer to a vanilla-custard flavor.  Syrup labeled as French vanilla may include custard, caramel or butterscotch flavors in addition to vanilla.

Though there are many compounds present in the extracts of vanilla, the compound vanillin (4-hydroxy-3-methoxybenzaldehyde) is primarily responsible for the characteristic flavor and smell of vanilla. Another minor component of vanilla essential oil is piperonal (heliotropin). Piperonal and other substances affect the odor of natural vanilla. Vanillin was first isolated from vanilla pods by Gobley in 1858.  By 1874, it had been obtained from glycosides of pine tree sap, temporarily causing a depression in the natural vanilla industry.

Vanilla essence comes in two forms. Real seedpod extract is an extremely complicated mixture of several hundred different compounds, including acetaldehyde, acetic acid, furan-2-carbaldehyde, hexanoic acid, 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde, 2-methoxy-4-(prop-2-en-1-yl)phenol, methyl 3-phenylprop-2-enoate, and 2-methylpropanoic acid. Synthetic essence, consisting basically of a solution of synthetic vanillin in ethanol, is derived from phenol and is of high purity.

In general, good vanilla will only come from good vines and through careful production methods. Commercial vanilla production can be performed under open field and “greenhouse” operations. Both production systems share the following similarities:

• Plant height and number of years before producing the first grains
• Shade necessities
• Amount of organic matter needed
• A tree or frame to grow around (Bamboo, coconut or Erythrina lanceolata)
• Labor intensity (pollination and harvest activities)

Vanilla grows best in a hot humid climate from sea level to an elevation of 1500 m. The ideal climate has moderate rainfall, 150–300 cm, evenly distributed through 10 months of the year. Optimum temperatures for cultivation are 15–30 °C (59–86 °F) during the day and 15–20 °C (59–68 °F) during the night. Ideal humidity is around 80%, and under normal greenhouse conditions it can be achieved by an evaporative cooler. However, since greenhouse vanilla is grown near the equator and under polymer (HDPE) netting (shading of 50%), this humidity can be achieved by the environment. Most vanilla processing is done in the region within 10 to 20 degrees above and below the equator.

Soils for vanilla cultivation should be loose, with high organic matter content and loamy texture. They must be well drained, and a slight slope helps in this condition. Soil pH has not been well documented, but some researchers have indicated an optimum soil pH of around 5.3. Mulch is very important for proper growth of the vine, and a considerable portion of mulch should be placed in the base of the vine.  Fertilization varies with soil conditions, but general recommendations are: 40 to 60g of N, 20 to 30g of P₂O₅ and 60 to 100g of K₂O should be applied to each plant per year besides organic manures like vermicompost, oil cakes, poultry manure and wood ash. Foliar applications are also good for vanilla, and a solution of 1% NPK (17:17:17) can be sprayed on the plant once a month. Vanilla likes a lot of organic matter; therefore 3 to 4 applications of mulch a year are adequate for the plant.

Dissemination of vanilla can be achieved either by stem cutting or by tissue culture. For stem cutting, a progeny garden needs to be established. Recommendations for establishing this garden vary, but in general trenches of 60 cm in width, 45 cm in depth and 60 cm spacing for each plant is necessary. All plants need to grow under 50% shade as well as the rest of the crop. Mulching the trenches with coconut husk and micro irrigation provide ideal micro climate for vegetative growth.  Cuttings between 60 and 120 cm should be selected for planting in the field or greenhouse. Cuttings below 60 cm need to be rooted and raised in a separate nursery before planting. Planting material should always come from unflowered portions of the vine. Wilting of the cuttings before planting provides better conditions for root initiation and establishment.

Before planting the cuttings, trees that will support the vine must be planted at least three months before sowing the cuttings. Pits of 30 x 30 x 30 cm are dug 30 cm away from the tree and filled with farm yard manure (FYM or Vermicompost), sand and top soil mixed well. An average of 2000 cuttings can be planted per hectare. One important consideration is that when planting the cuttings from the base 4 leaves should be pruned and the pruned basal point must be pressed into the soil in a way that the 4 nodes are in close contact with the soil, and are placed at a depth of 15 to 20 cm.  The top portion of the cutting is tied up to the tree using natural fibers like banana or hemp.

Several methods have been proposed for vanilla tissue culture, but all of them begin from axillary buds of the vanilla vine.  In vitro multiplication has also been achieved through culture of callus masses, protocorns, root tips and stem nodes.  Description of any of these processes can be obtained from the references listed before, but all of them are successful in generation of new vanilla plants that first need to be grown up to a height of at least 30 cm before they can be planted in the field or greenhouse.

In the tropics, the ideal time for planting vanilla is from September to November, when the weather is neither too rainy nor too dry, but this recommendation varies with growing conditions. Cuttings take 1 to 8 weeks to establish roots, and show initial signs of growth from one of the leaf axils. A thick mulch of leaves should be provided immediately after planting as an additional source of organic matter. Three years are required for cuttings to grow enough to produce flowers and subsequent pods. As with most orchids, the blossoms grow along stems branching from the main vine. The buds, growing along the 6 to 10 inch stems, bloom and mature in sequence, each at a different interval.

Flowering normally occurs every spring, and without pollination, the blossom wilts and falls, and no vanilla bean can grow. Each flower must be hand-pollinated within 12 hours of opening. The only insect capable of pollinating the blossom is the Melipona, a bee native only to Mexico. All vanilla grown today is pollinated by hand. A small splinter of wood or a grass stem is used to lift the rostellum or move the flap upward, so that the overhanging anther can be pressed against the stigma and self pollinate the vine. Generally one flower per raceme opens per day, and therefore the raceme may be in flowering for over 20 days. A healthy vine should produce about 50 to 100 beans per year; however growers are careful to pollinate only 5 to 6 flowers from the 20 on each raceme. The first 5 to 6 flowers that open per vine should be pollinated, so that the beans are similar in age. These agronomic practices facilitate harvest and increases bean quality. It takes the fruits 5 to 6 weeks to develop, but it takes around 9 months for the bean to mature. Over-pollination will result in diseased and inferior bean quality.  A vine remains productive between 12 and 14 years.

Most diseases come from the uncharacteristic growing conditions of vanilla. Therefore, conditions like excess water, insufficient drainage, heavy mulch, over-pollination and too much shade favor disease development. Vanilla is susceptible to many fungal and viral diseases. Fusarium sp, Sclerotium sp, Phytopthora sp and Colletrotrichum sp cause rots of root, stem, leaf, bean and shoot apex. These diseases can be controlled by spraying Bordeaux mixture (1%), Carbendazim (0.2%) and Copper oxychloride (0.2%).

Biological control of the spread of such diseases can be managed by applying to the soil Trichoderma (0.5 kg per plant in the rhizosphere) and foliar application of Pseudomonads (0.2%). Mosaic virus, leaf curl and Cymbidium mosaic potex virus are the common viral diseases. These diseases are transmitted through the sap; consequently affected plants have to be destroyed. The insect pests of vanilla include beetles and weevils that attack the flower, caterpillars, snakes and slugs that damage the tender parts of shoot, flower buds and immature beans, and grasshoppers that affect cutting shoot tips.  If organic agriculture is practiced, insecticides are avoided, and mechanical measures are adopted for pest management.  Most of these practices are implemented under greenhouse cultivation, since in the field such conditions are very difficult to achieve.

Most artificial vanilla products contain vanillin, which can be produced synthetically from lignin, a natural polymer found in wood. Most synthetic vanillin is a byproduct from the pulp used in papermaking, in which the lignin is broken down using sulfites or sulfates. However, vanillin is only one of 171 identified aromatic components of real vanilla beans.

Leptotes bicolor also belongs to the orchid family and is used as a natural vanilla replacement in Paraguay and southern Brazil.

In the United States, Castoreum, the exudate from the castor sacs of mature beavers, has been approved by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as a food additive, often referenced simply as a “natural flavoring” in the product’s list of ingredients. It is commonly used in both food and beverages, especially as vanilla and raspberry flavoring.  It is also used to flavor some cigarettes and in perfume-making.

The vanilla bean grows quickly on the vine but is not ready for harvest until maturity — approximately ten months. Harvesting vanilla beans is as labor intensive as pollinating the blossoms. Immature dark green pods are not harvested. Pale yellow discoloration that commences at the distal end of the beans is an indication of the maturity of pods. Each bean ripens at its own time, requiring a daily harvest. To ensure the finest flavor from every bean, each individual pod must be picked by hand just as it begins to split on the end. Overmatured beans are likely to split, causing a reduction in market value. Its commercial value is fixed based on the length of the pod. If the bean is more than 15 cm in length, it belongs to first-quality product. If the beans are between 10 and 15 cm long, pods are under the second-quality category, and beans less than 10 cm in length are under the third-quality category. Each of the beans has a considerable amount of seeds inside the pod, which are covered by a dark-red liquid from which the vanilla essence is extracted. Vanilla bean yield depends on the care and management given to the hanging and fruiting vines. Any practice directed to stimulate aerial root production has a direct effect on vine productivity. A five-year-old vine can produce between 1.5 and 3 kg pods, and this production can increase up to 6 kg after a few years. The harvested green beans can be commercialized as such or cured in order to get a better market price.

Several methods exist in the market for curing vanilla; nevertheless, all of them consist of four basic steps: killing, sweating, slow-drying, and conditioning of the beans.

The vegetative tissue of the vanilla pod is killed to stop the vegetative growth of the pods and disrupt the cells and tissue of the beans, which initiates enzymatic reactions responsible for the aroma. The method of killing varies, but may be accomplished by heating in hot water, freezing, or scratching, or killing by heating in an oven or exposing the beans to direct sunlight. The different methods give different profiles of enzymatic activity.

Testing has shown that mechanical disruption of bean tissues can cause curing processes, including the degeneration of glucovanillin to vanillin, so the reasoning goes that disrupting the tissues and cells of the bean allow enzymes and enzyme substrates to interact.

Hot-water killing may consist of dipping the pods in hot water (63–65 °C) for three minutes, or at 80 °C for 10 seconds. In scratching killing, beans are scratched along their length.  Frozen or quick-frozen beans must be thawed again for the subsequent sweating stage. Tied in bundles, rolled in blankets, beans may be placed in an oven at 60°C for 36 to 48 hours. Exposing beans to sunlight until they turn brown is a method originating in Mexico that was practiced by the Aztecs.

Sweating is a hydrolytic and oxidative process. Traditionally, it consists of keeping beans, for seven to ten days, densely stacked and insulated in woolen or other cloth. This retains a temperature of 45–65 °C and high humidity. Daily exposure to the sun may also be used, or dipping the beans in hot water. The beans are brown and have attained much of the characteristic vanilla flavor and aroma by the end of this process, but still retain a 60-70% moisture content by weight.

Reduction of the beans to 25–30% moisture by weight, to prevent rotting and to lock the aroma in the pods, is always achieved by some exposure of the beans to air, and usually (and traditionally) intermittent shade and sunlight. Beans may be laid out in the sun during the mornings and returned to their boxes in the afternoons, or spread on a wooden rack in a room for three to four weeks, sometimes with periods of sun exposure. Drying is the most problematic of the curing stages; unevenness in the drying process can lead to the loss of vanillin content of some beans by the time the others are cured.

This step is performed by storing the pods for five to six months in closed boxes, where the fragrance develops. The processed beans are sorted, graded, bundled, and wrapped in paraffin paper and preserved for the development of desired bean qualities, especially flavor and aroma. The cured vanilla beans contain an average of 2.5% vanillin.

Once fully cured, the vanilla beans are sorted by quality and graded.

Several vanilla bean grading systems are in use. Each country which produces vanilla beans has its own grading system, and individual vendors, in turn, sometimes use their own criteria for describing the quality of the beans they offer for sale.

In general, vanilla bean grade is based on the length, appearance (color, sheen, presence of any splits, presence of blemishes), and moisture content of the bean.  Whole, dark, plump and oily beans that are visually attractive, with no blemishes, and that have a higher moisture content are graded most highly.  Such beans are particularly prized by chefs for their appearance and can be featured in gourmet dishes.  Beans that show localized signs of disease or other physical defects are cut to remove the blemishes; the shorter fragments that are left are called “cuts” and are assigned lower grades, as are beans with lower moisture contents. Lower-grade beans tend to be favored for uses in which the appearance is not as important, such as in the production of vanilla flavoring extract and in the fragrance industry.

Higher-grade beans command higher prices in the market.  However, because grade is so dependent on visual appearance and moisture content, beans with the highest grade do not necessarily contain the highest concentration of characteristic flavor molecules such as vanillin, and are not necessarily the most flavorful.

† moisture content varies among sources cited
A simplified, alternative grading system has been proposed for classifying vanilla beans suitable for use in cooking:

Under this scheme, vanilla extract is normally made from Grade B beans.

There are three main commercial preparations of natural vanilla:

• whole pod
• powder (ground pods, kept pure or blended with sugar, starch, or other ingredients)
• extract (in alcoholic or occasionally glycerol solution; both pure and imitation forms of vanilla contain at least 35% alcohol)

Vanilla flavoring in food may be achieved by adding vanilla extract or by cooking vanilla pods in the liquid preparation. A stronger aroma may be attained if the pods are split in two, exposing more of a pod’s surface area to the liquid. In this case, the pods’ seeds are mixed into the preparation. Natural vanilla gives a brown or yellow color to preparations, depending on the concentration. Good-quality vanilla has a strong aromatic flavor, but food with small amounts of low-quality vanilla or artificial vanilla-like flavorings are far more common, since true vanilla is much more expensive.

A major use of vanilla is in flavoring ice cream. The most common flavor of ice cream is vanilla, and thus most people consider it to be the “default” flavor. By analogy, the term “vanilla” is sometimes used as a synonym for “plain”. Although vanilla is a prized flavoring agent on its own, it is also used to enhance the flavor of other substances, to which its own flavor is often complementary, such as chocolate, custard, caramel, coffee, cakes, and others.

The cosmetics industry uses vanilla to make perfume.

The food industry uses methyl and ethyl vanillin. Ethyl vanillin is more expensive, but has a stronger note. Cook’s Illustrated ran several taste tests pitting vanilla against vanillin in baked goods and other applications, and, to the consternation of the magazine editors, tasters could not differentiate the flavor of vanillin from vanilla; however, for the case of vanilla ice cream, natural vanilla won out.

In an in-vitro test, vanilla was able to block quorum sensing in bacteria. This is interesting because in many bacteria quorum sensing signals function as a switch for virulence. The microbes become virulent only when the signals indicate that they have the numbers to resist the host immune system response.  The essential oils of vanilla and vanillin are sometimes used in aromatherapy. In old medicinal literature, vanilla is described as an aphrodisiac and a remedy for fevers; these purported uses have never been scientifically proven. It has been shown that vanilla increases levels of catecholamines (including adrenaline), and as such can also be considered mildly addictive.

(info and images from Wikipedia)

Vanilla absolute is a dark brown liquid displaying a suave, sweet, balsamic-spicy bouquet with a woody/coumarinic undertone of good tenacity

Vanilla bean Tahiti is a soft golden waxy mass displaying a deep, rich, sweet balsamic-coumarinic bouquet with a delightful floral-fruity undertone

In natural perfumery vanilla is used in culinary creations, high class florals, new mown hay, tropical bouquets, sacred perfumes, incense bouquets.

(info from White Lotus Aromatics Blog)

Tarragon grows to 120–150 cm tall, with slender branched stems. The leaves are lanceolate, 2–8 cm long and 2–10 mm broad, glossy green, with an entire margin. The flowers are produced in small capitulae 2–4 mm diameter, each capitulum containing up to 40 yellow or greenish-yellow florets. (French tarragon, however, seldom produces flowers.)

French tarragon is the variety generally considered best for the kitchen, but is difficult to grow from seed. It is best to cultivate by root division. It is normally purchased as a plant, and some care must be taken to ensure that true French tarragon is purchased. A perennial, it normally goes dormant in winter.  It likes a hot, sunny spot, without excessive watering.

Russian tarragon (A. dracunculoides L.) can be grown from seed but is much weaker in flavor when compared to the French variety.  However, Russian tarragon is a far more hardy and vigorous plant, spreading at the roots and growing over a meter tall. This tarragon actually prefers poor soils and happily tolerates drought and neglect. It is not as strongly aromatic and flavorsome as its French cousin, but it produces many more leaves from early spring onwards that are mild and good in salads and cooked food. The young stems in early spring can be cooked as an asparagus substitute. Grow indoors from seed and plant out in the summer. Spreading plant can be divided easily.

Tarragon has an aromatic property reminiscent of anise, due to the presence of estragole, a known carcinogen and teratogen in mice. The European Union investigation revealed that the danger of estragole is minimal even at 100–1,000 times the typical consumption seen in humans.

Tarragon is one of the four fines herbes of French cooking, and particularly suitable for chicken, lasagna, fish and egg dishes. Tarragon is one of the main components of Béarnaise sauce. Fresh, lightly bruised sprigs of tarragon may be steeped in vinegar to impart their flavor.

Tarragon is used to flavor a popular carbonated soft drink in the countries of Azerbaijan, Armenia, Georgia and, by extension, Russia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan. The drink, named Tarhun, pronounced [tarˈxuːn] Тархун), is made out of sugary tarragon concentrate and colored bright green.

cis-Pellitorin, an isobutyramide eliciting a pungent taste, has been isolated from Tarragon plant.

In Slovenia, tarragon is used as a spice for a traditional sweet cake called potica.

Russian Tarragon shares the same botanical name and is grown from seed. However it is not a suitable substitute for French Tarragon which is sterile and grows from cuttings. Russian Tarragon has little if any flavor.Tagetes lucida is a much better substitute.

The scent and taste of tarragon is disliked by many garden pests, making it useful for intercropping as a companion plant, to protect its gardenmates. It is also reputed to be a nurse plant, enhancing growth and flavor of companion crops.

Tarragon reduces platelet adhesion and blood coagulation and thus may help prevent cardiovascular disease.

In one study in rats, tarragon showed significant antihyperglycemic activity in streptozotocin-induced rats compared to the standard drug.  The herb has the potential to act as antidiabetic as well as antihyperlipidemic.

An ethanolic extract of Artemisia dracunculus alleviated peripheral neuropathy in high fat diet-fed mice (a model of prediabetes and obesity).

A. dracunculus oil contained predominantly phenylpropanoids such as methyl chavicol (16.2%) and methyl eugenol (35.8%).^[7] Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis of the essential oil revealed the presence of trans-anethole (21.1%), α-trans-ocimene (20.6%), limonene (12.4%), α-pinene (5.1%), allo-ocimene (4.8%), methyl eugenol (2.2%), β-pinene (0.8%), α-terpinolene (0.5%), bornyl acetate (0.5%) and bicyclogermacrene (0.5%) as the main components.

The plant’s common name and Latin name originate from the belief in the Doctrine of Signatures which suggested that a plant’s appearance reflected its possible uses. The serpentine shape of tarragon’s root made herbalists believe it could cure snake bites. From this came the Greek name drakon (dragon), the Arabic tarkhum (little dragon), and the Latin name dracunculus (little dragon).

(info and pictures from Wikipedia)

Tarragon essential oil is a colorless to pale yellow liquid display a uniforim sweet, fresh, clean, anisic-spicy bouquet

In natural perfumery it is used in trace amounts in herbal bouquets, culinary perfumes, chypre, cologne and green-floral bases.

(info from White Lotus Aromatics blog)

The nutmeg tree is any of several species of trees in genus Myristica. The most important commercial species is Myristica fragrans, an evergreen tree indigenous to the Banda Islands in the Moluccas (or Spice Islands) of Indonesia. The nutmeg tree is important for two spices derived from the fruit: nutmeg and mace.

Nutmeg is the seed of the tree, roughly egg-shaped and about 20 to 30 mm (0.8 to 1 in) long and 15 to 18 mm (0.6 to 0.7 in) wide, and weighing between 5 and 10 g (0.2 and 0.4 oz) dried, while mace is the dried “lacy” reddish covering or aril of the seed. The first harvest of nutmeg trees takes place 7–9 years after planting, and the trees reach full production after 20 years. Nutmeg is usually used in powdered form. This is the only tropical fruit that is the source of two different spices. Several other commercial products are also produced from the trees, including essential oils, extracted oleoresins, and nutmeg butter.

The common or fragrant nutmeg, Myristica fragrans, native to the Banda Islands of Indonesia, is also grown in Penang Island in Malaysia and the Caribbean, especially in Grenada. It also grows in Kerala, a state in southern India. Other species of nutmeg include Papuan nutmeg M. argentea from New Guinea, and Bombay nutmeg M. malabarica from India, called jaiphal in Hindi; both are used as adulterants of M. fragrans products.

Nutmeg is a dioecious plant which is propagated sexually and asexually, the latter being the standard. Sexual propagation by seedling yields 50% male seedlings, which are unproductive. As there is no reliable method of determining plant sex before flowering in the sixth to eighth year, and sexual propagation bears inconsistent yields, grafting is the preferred method of propagation. Epicotyl grafting, approach grafting and patch budding have proved successful, epicotyl grafting being the most widely adopted standard. Air-layering, or marcotting, is an alternative, though not preferred, method, because of its low (35-40%) success rate.

Nutmeg and mace have similar sensory qualities, with nutmeg having a slightly sweeter and mace a more delicate flavour. Mace is often preferred in light dishes for the bright orange, saffron-like hue it imparts. Nutmeg is used for flavouring many dishes, usually in ground or grated form, and is best grated fresh in a nutmeg grater.

In Penang cuisine, dried, shredded nutmeg rind with sugar coating is used as toppings on the uniquely Penang ais kacang. Nutmeg rind is also blended (creating a fresh, green, tangy taste and white colour juice) or boiled (resulting in a much sweeter and brown juice) to make iced nutmeg juice or, as it is called in Penang Hokkien, lau hau peng.

In Indian cuisine, nutmeg is used in many sweet as well as savoury dishes (predominantly in Mughlai cuisine). It is known as jaiphal in most parts of India. In Kannada, nutmeg is called jaayi-kaayi/jaaipatre, jathikai (சாதிக்காய்) in Tamil and jatipatri and jathi seed in Kerala. In Telugu, nutmeg is called jaaji kaaya and mace is called jaapathri. It is also added in small quantities as a medicine for infants (janma ghutti). It may also be used in small quantities in garam masala. Ground nutmeg is also smoked in India.

In Middle Eastern cuisine, ground nutmeg is often used as a spice for savoury dishes. In Arabic, nutmeg is called jawzat at-tiyb (جوزة الطيب).

In Greece and Cyprus, nutmeg is called μοσχοκάρυδο (moschokarydo) (Greek: “musky nut”), and is used in cooking and savoury dishes.

In originally European cuisine, nutmeg and mace are used especially in potato dishes and in processed meat products; they are also used in soups, sauces, and baked goods. In Dutch cuisine, nutmeg is added to vegetables such as Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, and string beans. Nutmeg is a traditional ingredient in mulled cider, mulled wine, and eggnog.

Japanese varieties of curry powder include nutmeg as an ingredient.

In the Caribbean, nutmeg is often used in drinks such as the Bushwacker, Painkiller, and Barbados rum punch. Typically, it is just a sprinkle on the top of the drink.

The pericarp (fruit/pod) is used in Grenada to make a jam called morne delice. In Indonesia, the fruit is also made into jam, called selei buah pala, or is finely sliced, cooked with sugar, and crystallised to make a fragrant candy called manisan pala (nutmeg sweets).

The essential oil obtained by steam distillation of ground nutmeg is used widely in the perfumery and pharmaceutical industries. This volatile fraction typically contains 60-80% d-camphene by weight, as well as quantities of d-pinene, limonene, d-borneol, l-terpineol, geraniol, safrol, and myristicin.  The oil is colourless or light yellow, and smells and tastes of nutmeg. It contains numerous components of interest to the oleochemical industry, and is used as a natural food flavouring in baked goods, syrups, beverages, and sweets. It is used to replace ground nutmeg, as it leaves no particles in the food. The essential oil is also used in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries, for instance, in toothpaste, and as a major ingredient in some cough syrups. In traditional medicine, nutmeg and nutmeg oil were used for disorders related to the nervous and digestive systems.

Nutmeg butter is obtained from the nut by expression. It is semi-solid, reddish brown in colour, and tastes and smells of nutmeg. Approximately 75% (by weight) of nutmeg butter is trimyristin, which can be turned into myristic acid, a 14-carbon fatty acid, which can be used as a replacement for cocoa butter, can be mixed with other fats like cottonseed oil or palm oil, and has applications as an industrial lubricant.

It is known to have been a prized and costly spice in European medieval cuisine as a flavouring, medicinal, and preservative agent. Saint Theodore the Studite ( ca. 758 – ca. 826) allowed his monks to sprinkle nutmeg on their pease pudding when required to eat it. In Elizabethan times, it was believed nutmeg could ward off the plague, so nutmeg became very popular and its price skyrocketed.

The small Banda Islands were, until the mid-19th century, the world’s only source of nutmeg and mace. Nutmeg is noted as a very valuable commodity by Muslim sailors from the port of Basra, such as Sinbad the Sailor in the One Thousand and One Nights. Nutmeg was traded by Arabs during the Middle Ages and sold to the Venetians for very high prices, but the traders did not divulge the exact location of their source in the profitable Indian Ocean trade, and no European was able to deduce their location.

In August 1511, Afonso de Albuquerque conquered Malacca, which at the time was the hub of Asian trade, on behalf of the king of Portugal. In November of that year, after having secured Malacca and learning of the Bandas’ location, Albuquerque sent an expedition of three ships led by his friend António de Abreu to find them. Malay pilots, either recruited or forcibly conscripted, guided them via Java, the Lesser Sundas and Ambon to Banda, arriving in early 1512.  The first Europeans to reach the Bandas, the expedition remained in Banda for about a month, purchasing and filling their ships with Banda’s nutmeg and mace, and with cloves in which Banda had a thriving entrepôt trade.  The first written accounts of Banda are in Suma Oriental, a book written by the Portuguese apothecary Tomé Pires, based in Malacca from 1512 to 1515. Full control of this trade by the Portuguese was not possible, and they remained participants without a foothold in the islands themselves.

The trade in nutmeg later became dominated by the Dutch in the 17th century. The English and Dutch engaged in prolonged struggles to gain control of Run Island, then the only source of nutmeg. At the end of the Second Anglo-Dutch War, the Dutch gained control of Run, while England controlled New Amsterdam (New York) in North America.

The Dutch waged a bloody war, including the massacre and enslavement of the inhabitants of the island of Banda, just to control nutmeg production in the East Indies in 1621. Thereafter, the Banda Islands were run as a series of plantation estates, with the Dutch mounting annual expeditions in local war-vessels to extirpate nutmeg trees planted elsewhere.

In 1760, the price of nutmeg in London was 85 to 90 shillings per pound, a price kept artificially high by the Dutch voluntarily burning full warehouses of nutmegs in Amsterdam.

As a result of the Dutch interregnum during the Napoleonic Wars, the English took temporary control of the Banda Islands from the Dutch and transplanted nutmeg trees to their own colonial holdings elsewhere, notably Zanzibar and Grenada. The national flag of Grenada, adopted in 1974, shows a stylised split-open nutmeg fruit. The Dutch however continued to hold control of the spice islands until World War II

Connecticut gets its nickname (“the Nutmeg State”, “Nutmegger”) from the legend that some unscrupulous Connecticut traders would whittle “nutmeg” out of wood, creating a “wooden nutmeg” (a term which came to mean any fraud).

World production of nutmeg is estimated to average between 10,000 and 12,000 tonnes (9,800 and 12,000 long tons; 11,000 and 13,000 short tons) per year, with annual world demand estimated at 9,000 tonnes (8,900 long tons; 9,900 short tons); production of mace is estimated at 1,500 to 2,000 tonnes (1,500 to 2,000 long tons; 1,700 to 2,200 short tons). Indonesia and Grenada dominate production and exports of both products, with world market shares of 75% and 20% respectively. Other producers include India, Malaysia (especially Penang, where the trees are native within untamed areas), Papua New Guinea, Sri Lanka, and Caribbean islands, such as St. Vincent and Grenada, which produces 20% of the world’s nutmeg supply. The principal import markets are the European Community, the United States, Japan and India. Singapore and the Netherlands are major re-exporters.

One study has shown that the compound macelignan isolated from Myristica fragrans (Myristicaceae) may exert antimicrobial activity against Streptococcus mutans, but this is not a currently used treatment.

Nutmeg has been used in medicine since at least the seventh century. In the 19th century it was used as an abortifacient, which led to numerous recorded cases of nutmeg poisoning. Although used as a folk treatment for other ailments, nutmeg has no proven medicinal value today.

In low doses, nutmeg produces no noticeable physiological or neurological response, but in large doses, raw nutmeg has psychoactive effects. In its freshly-ground (from whole nutmegs) form, nutmeg contains myristicin, a monoamine oxidase inhibitor and psychoactive substance. Myristicin poisoning can induce convulsions, palpitations, nausea, eventual dehydration, and generalized body pain.  It is also reputed to be a strong deliriant.

Fatal myristicin poisonings in humans are very rare, but two have been reported: one in an 8-year-old child and another in a 55-year-old adult, the latter case attributed to a combination with flunitrazepam. The effects of nutmeg can take several hours to take effect, and can last for several days.^{[citation needed]}

Myristicin poisoning is potentially deadly to some pets and livestock, and may be caused by culinary quantities of nutmeg harmless to humans. For this reason, it is recommended not to feed eggnog to dogs.

Peter Stafford’s Psychedelics Encyclopedia quotes an 1883 report from Mumbai noting that “the Hindus of West India take [nutmeg] as an intoxicant”, and records that the spice has been used for centuries as a form of snuff in rural eastern Indonesia and India, latter seeing the ground seed mixed with betel and other kinds of snuff. In 1829, the Czech physiologist Jan Evangelista Purkinje ingested three ground nutmegs with a glass of wine and recorded headaches, nausea, hallucinations and a sense of euphoria that lasted for several days.

Harvard ethnobotanist Richard Evans Schultes and chemist Albert Hofmann, who discovered LSD, documented reports of nutmeg’s use as an intoxicant by students, prisoners, sailors, alcoholics and marijuana smokers. In his autobiography, Malcolm X writes about taking nutmeg and other “semi-drugs” while serving time in prison.

The Angewandte Chemie International Edition records the use of nutmeg as an intoxicant in the United States in the post-World War II period, notably among young people, bohemians, and prisoners. A 1966 New York Times piece named it along with morning glory seeds, diet aids, cleaning fluids, cough medicine, and other substances as “alternative highs” on college campuses.

Nutmeg was once considered an abortifacient, but may be safe for culinary use during pregnancy. However, it inhibits prostaglandin production and contains hallucinogens that may affect the fetus if consumed in large quantities.

(info and pictures from wikipedia)

Nutmeg essential oil is a colorless to pale yellow liquid displaying a terpenic topnote in Sri Lankan distilled oil with fresh, warm, sweet, aromatic spicy body note and a woody undertone

In natural perumery used in spice accords, culinary perfumes, after-shave lotions, chypres, high class florals, and incense bouquets.

(info from White Lotus Aromatics Blog)

Cedars are trees up to 30–40 m (occasionally 60 m) tall with spicy-resinous scented wood, thick ridged or square-cracked bark, and broad, level branches. The shoots are dimorphic, with long shoots, which form the framework of the branches, and short shoots, which carry most of the leaves. The leaves are evergreen and needle-like, 8–60 mm long, arranged in an open spiral phyllotaxis on long shoots, and in dense spiral clusters of 15–45 together on short shoots; they vary from bright grass-green to dark green to strongly glaucous pale blue-green, depending on the thickness of the white wax layer which protects the leaves from desiccation. The seed cones are barrel-shaped, 6–12 cm long and 3–8 cm broad, green maturing grey-brown, and, as in Abies, disintegrate at maturity to release the winged seeds. The seeds are 10–15 mm long, with a 20–30 mm wing; as in Abies, the seeds have 2–3 resin blisters, containing an unpleasant-tasting resin, thought to be a defence against squirrel predation. Cone maturation takes one year, with pollination in autumn and the seeds maturing the same time a year later. The pollen cones are slender ovoid, 3–8 cm long, produced in late summer and shedding pollen in autumn.

Cedars share a very similar cone structure with the firs (Abies) and were traditionally thought to be most closely related to them, but molecular evidence supports a basal position in the family.

There are five taxa of Cedrus, assigned according to taxonomic opinion to between one and four different species.

• Deodar or Deodar Cedar, C. deodara (syn. C. libani subsp. deodara). Western Himalaya. Leaves bright green to pale glaucous green, 25–60 mm; cones with slightly ridged scales.
• Lebanon Cedar or Cedar of LebanonC. libani. Mountains of the Mediterranean region, from Turkey and Lebanon west to Morocco. Cones with smooth scales; two subspecies:
  • Lebanon CedarC. libani subsp. libani. Mountains of Lebanon, western Syria and south-central Turkey. Leaves dark green to glaucous blue-green, 10–25 mm.
  • Turkish CedarC. libani subsp. stenocoma. Mountains of southwest Turkey. Leaves glaucous blue-green, 8–25 mm.
• Cyprus CedarC. brevifolia (syn. C. libani subsp. brevifolia, C. libani var. brevifolia). Mountains of Cyprus. Leaves glaucous blue-green, 8–20 mm.
• Atlas CedarC. atlantica (syn. C. libani subsp. atlantica). Atlas mountains in Morocco & Algeria. Leaves dark green to glaucous blue-green, 10–25 mm.

Cedars are adapted to mountainous climates; in the Mediterranean they receive winter precipitation, mainly as snow, and summer drought, while in the western Himalaya, they receive primarily summer monsoon rainfall.

Cedars are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Pine Processionary and Turnip Moth (recorded on Deodar Cedar).

Cedars are very popular ornamental trees, widely used in horticulture in temperate climates where winter temperatures do not fall below about −25 °C. The Turkish Cedar is slightly hardier, to −30 °C or just below. Extensive mortality of planted specimens can occur in severe winters where temperatures do drop lower.  Areas with successful long-term cultivation include the entire Mediterranean region, western Europe north to the British Isles, southern Australia and New Zealand, and southern and western North America.

Cedar wood and cedar oil are known to be a natural repellent to moths, hence cedar is a popular lining for modern-day cedar chests and closets in which woolens are stored. This specific use of cedar is mentioned in The Iliad (Book 24), referring to the cedar-roofed or lined storage chamber where Priam goes to fetch treasures to be used as ransom. Cedar is also commonly used to make shoe trees as it can absorb moisture and de-odorise.

Timber of trees with similar names such as Western Red Cedar is frequently confused with genuine cedar.

The Cedar of Lebanon and to a lesser extent the Deodar have local cultural importance.

Both the Latin words cedrus and the generic name cedrus are derived from the Greek ‘kedros’. Ancient Greek and Latin used the same word, kedros and cedrus respectively, for different species of plants now classified in the genera Cedrus and Juniperus (juniper). Species of both genera are native to the area where Greek language and culture originated, though as the word “kedros” does not seem to be derived from any of the languages of the Middle East, it has been suggested the word may originally have applied to Greek species of juniper and was later adopted for species now classified in the genus Cedrus because of the similarity of their aromatic woods.  The name was similarly applied to citron and the word citrus is derived from the same root.  However, as a loan word in English, cedar had become fixed to its biblical sense of Cedrus by the time of its first recorded usage in AD 1000.

The name “cedar” has more recently (since about 1700) been applied to many other trees with scented wood (in some cases with the botanical name alluding to this usage). Such usage is regarded by some authorities as a misapplication of the name to be discouraged.

(info and pictures from Wikipedia)

Atlas Cedarwood oil (Cedrus atlantica) is a yellow to orange yellow liquid, sometimes deep amber, displaying a oily-precious woods bouquet with a delicate sweet soft sweet undertone

It is used widely in perfumery for its fixative qualities especially in floral-woody bouquets, incense perfumes, precious woods accords, forest notes

“Atlas Cedarwood is widely used in perfumery for its fixative effect and unique odor which seems to blend so well with labdanum products and with all the woody and woody-floral types of perfume materials.” Steffen Arctander

Himalayan cedarwood essential oil (Cedrus deodara) is a pale yellow liquid displaying a suave, balsamic, sweet, precious woods bouquet. The aforementioned notes last deep into the lengthy dryout.

In natural perfumery can be used in sacred perfumes, incense notes, Oriental bouquets, forest notes, amber bases and is valued for its fixative effects in floral compositions particularly of the woody-floral type.

(info from White Lotus Aromatics Blog)

Benzoin is also called gum benzoin or gum benjamin, but “gum” is incorrect as benzoin is not a water-soluble polysaccharide. Its name came via the Italian from the Arabic lubān jāwī (لبان خاوي, “frankincense from Java”), because it was brought from Indonesia. The Catalan traders, who bought lubān jāwī from moorish traders, modified the word by changing a to e and omitting the lu to benjawi. Italians further changed it into benjuì, and in Latin it became ultimately known as benzoë.

(info and pictures from Wikipedia)

The absolute of Siam Benzoin is extracted from the balsamic resin of the tree, Styrax tonkinensis.  Diluted in 50% perfumer’s alcohol (ethanol) it is a pourable, thick, somewhat sticky amber liquid.  The odor of the absolute is pleasant, delicate sweet balsamic with a distinct vanilla odor.

Benzoin(Siam) is valued as a fixative in perfumery, in colognes, in alcohol for “pre fixation” prior to preparation of colognes and lotions. Also valued for use in oriental perfumes where it imparts its sweet balsamic notes, in powdering fragrances etc.

(info from White Lotus Aromatics)

The tuberose is a night-blooming plant thought to be native to Mexico along with every other species of Polianthes. The Aztecs called it Omixochitl [oh me' zu che' tl] or bone flower.

It is a prominent plant in Indian culture and mythology. The flowers are used in wedding ceremonies, garlands, decoration and various traditional rituals. Its Hindi name is “Rajnigandha”, though it is sometimes mistakenly referred to as “Raat ki Rani” (“Queen of the Night”), which is really Cestrum nocturnum. The name Rajnigandha means “night-fragrant” (rajni=night; gandha=fragrance). In Bengali, it is called “Rajoni-Gandha”, meaning “Scent of the Night”. In Marathi, it is called “निशिगंध – NishiGhanda”. In parts of South India, it is known as “Sugandaraja”, which translates to “king of fragrance/smell”. In Chinese, it is called WanXiangYu 晚香玉 (“night fragrant jade”, meaning “flower as precious as jade and becoming fragrant at night), or YeLaiXiang 夜來香 (“fragrance that comes at night”) or YueXiaXiang 月下香 ( “fragrance under the moon”). In Indonesia it is called “bunga sedap malam”, meaning night fragrant flower. In Tamil Nadu it is called as Sambangi or nilasambangi, in Andhra Pradesh it is called as “NelaSampenga” and traditionally used in all type of garlanding especially in south Indian marriages. In Cuba it is called “azucena” which is the name given to amaryllis in Mexico.

In Iran the tuberose is known as “Gole Maryam” (“Mary flower”) and the oil extracted from the flower is used as a perfume.

The tuberose is also used traditionally in Hawaii to create leis and was considered a funeral flower in Victorian times. Its scent is described as a complex, exotic, sweet, floral.

In Taiwan, the tuberose has become a trendy food ingredient and can be found in many five-star hotels.

The tuberose grows in elongated spikes up to 45 cm (18 in) long that produce clusters of fragrant waxy white flowers that bloom from the bottom towards the top of the spike. It has long, bright green leaves clustered at the base of the plant and smaller, clasping leaves along the stem.

Members of the closely related genus Manfreda are often called “tuberoses”. (info and all pictures from Wikipedia)

The absolute of Tuberose is a golden brown liquid to waxy paste displaying a very rich, heavy,, sweet exotic floral with a spicy, balsamic, honeyed undertone of good tenacity

In natural perfumery used in high class florals, Oriental bouquets, garland perfumes. (info from White Lotus Aromatics Blog)

When a tree wound penetrates through the bark and into the sapwood, the tree bleeds a resin. Myrrh gum, like frankincense, is such a resin. When people harvest myrrh, they wound the trees repeatedly to bleed them of the gum. Myrrh gum is waxy, and coagulates quickly. After the harvest, the gum becomes hard and glossy. The gum is yellowish, and may be either clear or opaque. It darkens deeply as it ages, and white streaks emerge.

Myrrh gum is commonly harvested from the species Commiphora myrrha, which is native to Yemen, Somalia, and eastern Ethiopia. Another farmed species is C. momol.  The related Commiphora gileadensis, native to Eastern Mediterranean and particularly the Arabian Peninsula, is the biblically referenced Balm of Gilead.  Several other species yield bdellium, and Indian myrrh.

The oleo gum resins of a number of other Commiphora and Balsamodendron species are also used as perfumes, medicines (such as aromatic wound dressings), and incense ingredients. A lesser quality myrrh is bled from the tree Commiphora erythraea. Commiphora opobalsamum oleo gum resin is known as Opopinax, a name it shares with the gum resin bled from a species of parsnip, Pastincea opobalsamum.

Fragrant “myrrh beads” are made from the crushed seeds of Detarium microcarpum, an unrelated West African tree. These beads are traditionally worn by married women in Mali as multiple strands around the hips.

The name “myrrh” is also applied to the potherb Myrrhis odorata, otherwise known as “cicely” or “sweet cicely”.

The word “myrrh” derives from the the Aramaic (murr), meaning “was bitter”. Its name entered the English language from the Hebrew Bible, where it is called mor, מור, and later as a Semitic loanword was used in the Greek myth of Myrrha, and later in the Septuagint; in the Greek language, the related word μύρον became a general term for perfume.

So valuable has it been at times in ancient history that it has been equal in weight value to gold. During times of scarcity, its value rose even higher than that.  It has been used throughout history as a perfume, incense and medicine.

In traditional Chinese medicine, myrrh is classified as bitter and spicy, with a neutral temperature. It is said to have special efficacy on the heart, liver, and spleen meridians, as well as “blood-moving” powers to purge stagnant blood from the uterus. It is therefore recommended for rheumatic, arthritic, and circulatory problems, and for amenorrhea, dysmenorrhea, menopause, and uterine tumors.

Its uses are similar to those of frankincense, with which it is often combined in decoctions, liniments, and incense. When used in concert, myrrh is “blood-moving” while frankincense moves the Qi, making it more useful for arthritic conditions.

It is combined with such herbs as notoginseng, safflower stamens, Angelica sinensis, cinnamon, and Salvia miltiorrhiza, usually in alcohol, and used both internally and externally.

Myrrh is used more frequently in Ayurveda and Unani medicine, which ascribe tonic and rejuvenative properties to the resin.

Myrrh (daindhava) is used in many specially-processed rasayana formulas in Ayurveda. However, non-rasayana myrrh is contraindicated when kidney dysfunction or stomach pain is apparent, or for women who are pregnant or have excessive uterine bleeding.

A related species, called guggul in Ayurvedic medicine, is considered one of the best substances for the treatment of circulatory problems, nervous system disorders and rheumatic complaints.

In pharmacy, myrrh is used as an antiseptic in mouthwashes, gargles, and toothpastes for prevention and treatment of gum disease.  Myrrh is currently used in some liniments and healing salves that may be applied to abrasions and other minor skin ailments. Myrrh has also been recommended as an analgesic for toothaches, and can be used in liniment for bruises, aches, and sprains.

In an attempt to determine the cause of its effectiveness, researchers examined the individual ingredients of an herbal formula used traditionally by Kuwaiti diabetics to lower blood glucose. Myrrh and aloe gums effectively improved glucose tolerance in both normal and diabetic rats.

Myrrh was shown to produce analgesic effects on mice which were subjected to pain. Researchers at the University of Florence showed that furanoeudesma-1,3-diene and another terpene in the myrrh affect opioid receptors in the mouse’s brain which influence pain perception.

Mirazid, an Egyptian drug made from myrrh, has been investigated as an oral treatment of parasitic ailments, including fascioliasis and schistosomiasis.

Myrrh has been shown to lower cholesterol LDL (bad cholesterol) levels, as well as to increase the HDL (good cholesterol) in various tests on humans done in the past few decades. One recent (2009) documented laboratory test showed this same effect on albino rats.

Myrrh was used by the ancient Egyptians, along with natron, for the embalming of mummies.

Myrrh was a part of the Ketoret, which is used when referring to the consecrated incense described in the Hebrew Bible and Talmud. It is also referred to as the HaKetoret (the incense). It was offered on the specialized incense altar in the time when the Tabernacle was located in the First and Second Jerusalem Temples. The ketoret was an important component of the Temple service in Jerusalem.

It was traded by camel caravans overland from areas of production in southern Arabia by the Nabataeans to their capital city of Petra, from where it was distributed throughout the Mediterranean region.

According to the book of Matthew 2:11, gold, frankincense and myrrh were among the gifts to Jesus by the Biblical Magi “from the East.”

“While burning incense was accepted as a practice in the later Roman Catholic church, the early church during Roman times forbade the use of incense in services resulting in a rapid decline in the incense trade.”

Because of its New Testament significance, myrrh is a common ingredient in incense offered during Christian liturgical celebrations.

In Roman Catholic liturgical tradition, pellets of myrrh are traditionally placed in the Paschal candle during the Easter Vigil. Eastern Christianity uses incense much more frequently, sometimes emphasizing its use at Vespers and Matins because of the Old Testament exhortation of the evening and morning offerings of incense.

Myrrh is also used to prepare the sacramental chrism used by many churches of both Eastern and Western rites. In the Middle East, the Eastern Orthodox Church traditionally uses myrrh-scented oil to perform the sacraments of chrismation and unction, both of which are commonly referred to as “receiving the Chrism”.

Myrrh is also used in Neo-paganism and Ritual Magick.  (info and pictures from Wikipedia Myrrh entry)

Myrrh essential oil is a yellow to amber colored oil displaying a rich, warm,sweet, resinous, balsamic bouquet with a delicate spicy-aromatic undertone.

In natural perfumery used in incense bouquets, heavy-floral perfumers, Oriental essences, woody-balsamic bases, forest accords, sacred perfumes.  (info from White Lotus Aromatics Blog)

A common misconception is referring to the lotus as a waterlily (Nymphaea), an entirely different plant as can be seen from the center of the flower, which clearly lacks the structure that goes on to form the distinctive circular seed pod in the Nelumbo nucifera.  Waterlilies come in various colors, whereas the lotus has flowers ranging in hues of white to hot pink.

Native to Tropical Asia and Queensland, Australia, it is commonly cultivated in water gardens. The white and pink lotuses are national flowers of India and Vietnam, respectively.

Plant taxonomy systems agree that this flower is in the Nelumbo genus, but disagree as to which family Nelumbo is in, or whether it should be part of its own unique family and order tree.

The roots of Nelumbo nucifera are planted in the soil of the pond or river bottom, while the leaves float on top of the water surface or are held well above it. The flowers are usually found on thick stems rising several centimeters above the leaves. The plant normally grows up to a height of about 150 cm and a horizontal spread of up to 3 meters, but some unverified reports place the height as high as over 5 meters. The leaves may be as large as 60 cm in diameter, while the showy flowers can be up to 20 cm in diameter.

Researchers report that the lotus has the remarkable ability to regulate the temperature of its flowers to within a narrow range just as humans and other warmblooded animals do.  Dr. Roger S. Seymour and Dr. Paul Schultze-Motel, physiologists at the University of Adelaide in Australia, found that lotus flowers blooming in the Adelaide Botanic Gardens maintained a temperature of 30–35 °C (86–95 °F), even when the air temperature dropped to 10 °C (50 °F). They suspect the flowers may be doing this to attract coldblooded insect pollinators. The study, published in the journal Nature, is the latest discovery in the esoteric field of heat-producing plants. Two other species known to be able to regulate their temperature include Symplocarpus foetidus and Philodendron selloum.

The traditional Sacred Lotus is distantly related to Nymphaea caerulea and possesses similar chemistry. Both Nymphaea caerulea and Nelumbo nucifera contain the alkaloids nuciferine and aporphine.

The distinctive dried seed heads, which resemble the spouts of watering cans, are widely sold throughout the world for decorative purposes and for dried flower arranging.

The flowers, seeds, young leaves, and “roots” (rhizomes) are all edible. In Asia, the petals are sometimes used for garnish, while the large leaves are used as a wrap for food, not frequently eaten (for example, as a wrapper for zongzi). In Korea, the leaves and petals are used as a tisane. Yeonkkotcha (연꽃차) is made with dried petals of white lotus and yeonipcha (연잎차) is made with the leaves. Young lotus stems are used as a salad ingredient in Vietnamese cuisine. The rhizome (called ǒu (藕) in pinyin Chinese, ngau in Cantonese, bhe in Hindi, renkon (レンコン, 蓮根 in Japanese), yeongeun (연근 in Korean) is used as a vegetable in soups, deep-fried, stir-fried, and braised dishes and the roots are also used in traditional Asian herbal medicine. Petals, leaves, and rhizome can also all be eaten raw, but there is a risk of parasite transmission (e.g., Fasciolopsis buski): it is therefore recommended that they be cooked before eating.

Lotus rootlets are often pickled with rice vinegar, sugar, chili and/or garlic. It has a crunchy texture with sweet-tangy flavours. In Asian cuisine, it is popular with salad, prawns, sesame oil and/or coriander leaves. Lotus roots have been found to be rich in dietary fiber, vitamin C, potassium, thiamin, riboflavin, vitamin B₆, phosphorus, copper, and manganese, while very low in saturated fat.

The stamens can be dried and made into a fragrant herbal tea called liánhuā cha (蓮花茶) in Chinese, or (particularly in Vietnam)  used to impart a scent to tea leaves. The lotus seeds or nuts (called liánzĭ, 蓮子; or xian liánzĭ, 鲜莲子, in Chinese) are quite versatile, and can be eaten raw or dried and popped like popcorn, phool makhana. They can also be boiled until soft and made into a paste, or boiled with dried longans and rock sugar to make a tong sui (sweet soup). Combined with sugar, lotus seed paste becomes one of the most common ingredients used in pastries such as mooncakes, daifuku, and rice flour pudding.

In Vietnam, the bitter tasting germs of the lotus seeds are also made into a tisane (trà tim sen).

A unique fabric from the lotus plant fibers is produced only at Inle lake, Union of Myanmar and is used for weaving special robes for Buddha images called kya thingahn (lotus robe).

From ancient times the lotus has been a divine symbol in Asian traditions representing the virtues of sexual purity and non-attachment.

Hindus revere it with the divinities Vishnu and Lakshmi often portrayed on a pink lotus in iconography. In the representation of Vishnu as Padmanabha (Lotus navel), a lotus issues from his navel with Brahma on it. Goddess Sarasvati is portrayed on a white-colored lotus.

Often used as an example of divine beauty, Vishnu is often described as the ‘Lotus-Eyed One’. Its unfolding petals suggest the expansion of the soul. The growth of its pure beauty from the mud of its origin holds a benign spiritual promise. In Hindu iconography, other deities, like Ganga and Ganesha are often depicted with lotus flowers as their seats.

The lotus plant is cited extensively within Puranic and Vedic literature, for example:

One who performs his duty without attachment, surrendering the results unto the Supreme Lord, is unaffected by sinful action, as the lotus is untouched by water.

—Bhagavad Gita 5.10:

In Chinese culture Confucian scholar Zhou Dunyi wrote:

I love the lotus because while growing from mud, it is unstained.

Most deities of Asian religions are depicted as seated on a lotus flower. In Buddhist symbolism, the lotus represents purity of the body, speech, and mind as if floating above the muddy waters of attachment and desire. According to legend, Gautama Buddha was born with the ability to walk, and lotus flowers bloomed everywhere he stepped.

In the classical written and oral literature of many Asian cultures the lotus is present in figurative form, representing elegance, beauty, perfection, purity and grace, being often used in poems and songs as an allegory for ideal feminine attributes. In Sanskrit the word lotus (padma पद्म) has many synonyms. Since the lotus thrives in water, ja (denoting birth) is added to synonyms of water to derive some synonyms for the lotus, like ambuja (ambu= water + ja=born of), neeraj (neera=water + ja= born of), pankaj, pankaja, kamal, kamala, kunala, aravind, arvind, nalin,nalini and saroja  and names derived from the lotus, like padmavati (possessing lotuses) or padmini (full of lotuses).  These names and derived versions are often used to name girls, and to a lesser extent boys, in India, Nepal and Sri Lanka, as well as in many other countries influenced by Indic culture, like Thailand, Cambodia, Indonesia and Laos.

Drawing in turn on these beliefs, the international Bahá’í community adopted this symbolism in the design of the Lotus Temple in New Delhi, India. (info/pictures from wikipedia lotus entry)

In Natural Perfumery, there are three types of lotus absolutes commonly used.  White, Pink, and the very rare, Blue.

Pink Lotus absolute (Nelumbo nucifera) is a dark pink viscous liquid(can solidify if temperatures are very cool) displaying a rich, sweet, floral, fruity-leathery aroma with a powdery-spicy undertone.

In natural perfumery used in sacred perfumes, Oriental bouquets, fougere, chypre, amber bases, high class florals.

The absolute of white lotus blossoms (Nelumbo nucifera) is a dark brown viscous liquid with a sweet, floral, fruity, leathery bouquet with a animalic-herbaceous undertone.

In natural perfumery used in sacred perfumes, Oriental bouquets, fougere, chypre, amber bases, high class florals. (info from White Lotus Aromatics)

This rarest of Lotus Blossoms yields an ethereal absolute. When appropriately diluted, it is light, delicate in aroma, not as floral as the more common Pink or White Lotus Blossoms. but its effect on the spirit is amazing.  (info from Natures Gift)

image from wikipedia

The word “tonka” is taken from the Galibi (Carib) tongue spoken by natives of French Guiana; it also appears in Tupi, another language of the same region, as the name of the tree. The old genus name, Coumarouna, was formed from another Tupi name for tree, kumarú. The tree is native to the Orinoco region of Guyana.

The Tonka seed contains coumarin, a chemical first isolated from this plant, and named for it. Coumarin is responsible for the pleasant odor of the seeds, and is used in the perfume industry. Coumarin is bitter to the taste, however, and in large oral doses can cause liver damage in rodents. It is therefore controlled as a food additive by many governments. Like a number of other plants, the Tonka Bean plant probably produces coumarin as a defense chemical.

image from wikipedia

Radio-carbon dating of D. odorata stumps left by a large logging operation near Manaus by Niro Higuchi, Jeffrey Chambers and Joshua Schimel, showed that it was one of four species which definitely live to over 1,000 years. Until their research, it had been assumed unlikely that any Amazonian tree could live to great age due to the conditions of the rain forest.

Tonka Beans had been used as a vanilla substitute, as a perfume, and in tobacco before being banned in some countries. They are used in some French cuisine (particularly, in desserts and stews) and in perfumes. Today, main producers of the seeds are Venezuela and Nigeria.

image from wikipedia

Its use in food is banned in the United States by the Food and Drug Administration.  Many anticoagulant prescription drugs, such as warfarin, are based on 4-hydroxycoumarin, a chemical derivative of coumarin initially isolated from this bean. Coumarin itself, however, does not have anticoagulant properties.

image from http://www.da-academy.org

The beans were formerly also spelled “Tonquin” and “Tonkin”, although it has no connection with Tonkin, now part of Vietnam.

Soap companies, like Lush, are using Tonka as part of a vanilla smelling soap product. Thorntons has produced a variety of milk chocolate made with tonka-infused cocoa butter, winning the Academy of Chocolate’s Silver Award in 2009.

Tonquin is still used today to flavor some pipe tobaccos like Dunhill Royal Yacht and Samuel Gawith 1792 Flake.

Cumaru, also known as Brazilian Teak, is an increasingly popular hardwood used for flooring in the US. It has a very appealing natural color variation and is considered quite durable as it has a 3540 rating on the Janka Hardness Scale.

image from http://www.da-academy.org

In the Pagan and Occult communities the Tonka Bean is considered to have magical properties and uses. One who practices magical arts believe that by crushing a Tonka Bean and steeping it in an herbal brew or tea it will help cure ailments of depression, disorientation, confusion, and suicidal behavior, as well as boosting the immune system.

It is also believed by some practitioners of various occult traditions that Tonka Beans can grant or help one fulfill desires and wishes by using the bean in a variety of methods. Such methods include holding the bean in your hand while whispering your wish or desire then carrying it with you until your wish or desire is fulfilled, then burying the bean afterwards; another common method is by making your wish with the bean in your hand then stomping on it afterwards. Other methods include making your wish then planting it in fertile earth, when and as the plant grows so does your wish so become fulfilled.  (info from Wikipedia)

image from http://www.da-academy.org

Tonka Bean absolute is a solid amber colored crystalline mass at room temperature requiring gentle heating to become a flowable liquid. Once heated and fluid it can be mixed with carrier oils and will remain in a liquid state. The absolute displays a very rich, warm, sweet, maple-vanilla-balsamic bouquet, with a powdery, nutty, candied undertone with excellent tenacity and radiance.

In natural perfumery it is used in new mown hay, chypre, fougeres, Oriental bases, lavender accords, potpourri creations, sacred perfumes, incense bouquets. (info from White Lotus Aromatics Blog)

image from http://www.da-academy.org

Oakmoss is commercially harvested in countries of South-Central Europe and usually exported to the Grasse region of France where its fragrant compounds are extracted as Oakmoss absolutes and extracts. These raw materials are often used as perfume fixatives and form the base notes of many fragrances. They are also key components of Fougère and Chypre class perfumes. The lichen has a distinct and complex odor and can be described as woody, sharp and slightly sweet. Oakmoss growing on pines have a pronounced turpentine odor that is valued in certain perfume compositions. (info from Wikipedia)

Oakmoss absolute(Evernia prunastri) is a dark green waxy grainy solid displaying a green, powdery, earthy, mossy, rooty, dried bark odor with a mild, punguent phenolic/tarlike, oceanic undertone. The tenacity of the absolute is excellent.  In natural perfumery used in forest notes, amber bases, leather notes, chypre, fougere, new mown hay, oriental bases, colognes, historical perfumes.  (Info from White Lotus Aromatics Blog)

Ginger

Ginger is the rhizome of the plant Zingiber officinale, consumed as a delicacy, medicine, or spice. It lends its name to its genus and family (Zingiberaceae). Other notable members of this plant family are turmeric, cardamom, and galangal.

Ginger cultivation began in South Asia and has since spread to East Africa and the Caribbean.  It is sometimes called root ginger to distinguish it from other things that share the name ginger.

The English name ginger comes from French: gingembre, Old English: gingifere, Medieval Latin: ginginer, Greek: zingiberis (ζιγγίβερις). Ultimately the origin is from Tamil: inji ver (இஞ்சி வேர்). The botanical term for root in Tamil is ver (வேர்), hence inji root or inji ver.

Ginger produces clusters of white and pink flower buds that bloom into yellow flowers. Because of its aesthetic appeal and the adaptation of the plant to warm climates, ginger is often used as landscaping around subtropical homes. It is a perennial reed-like plant with annual leafy stems, about a meter (3 to 4 feet) tall.

Traditionally, the root is gathered when the stalk withers; it is immediately scalded, or washed and scraped, to kill it and prevent sprouting.

Ginger produces a hot, fragrant kitchen spice.

Young ginger rhizomes are juicy and fleshy with a very mild taste. They are often pickled in vinegar or sherry as a snack or just cooked as an ingredient in many dishes. They can also be steeped in boiling water to make ginger tea, to which honey is often added; sliced orange or lemon fruit may also be added. Ginger can also be made into candy.

Mature ginger roots are fibrous and nearly dry. The juice from old ginger roots is extremely potent  and is often used as a spice in Indian recipes, and is a quintessential ingredient of Chinese, Japanese and many South Asian cuisines for flavoring dishes such as seafood or goat meat and vegetarian cuisine.

Ginger acts as a useful food preservative.

Fresh ginger can be substituted for ground ginger at a ratio of 6 to 1, although the flavors of fresh and dried ginger are somewhat different. Powdered dry ginger root is typically used as a flavoring for recipes such as gingerbread, cookies, crackers and cakes, ginger ale, and ginger beer.

Candied ginger is the root cooked in sugar until soft, and is a type of confectionery.

Fresh ginger may be peeled before eating. For longer-term storage, the ginger can be placed in a plastic bag and refrigerated or frozen.

Ginger have been claimed to decrease the pain from arthritis, though studies have been inconsistent. It may also have blood thinning and cholesterol lowering properties that may make it useful for treating heart disease.

Preliminary research also indicates that nine compounds found in ginger may bind to human serotonin receptors, possibly helping to affect anxiety.

Advanced glycation end-products are possibly associated in the development of several pathophysiologies, including diabetic cataract for which ginger was effective in preliminary studies, apparently by acting through antiglycating mechanisms.

Ginger compounds are active against a form of diarrhea which is the leading cause of infant death in developing countries. Zingerone is likely to be the active constituent against enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin-induced diarrhea.

Ginger has been found effective in multiple studies for treating nausea caused by seasickness, morning sickness and chemotherapy, though ginger was not found superior over a placebo for pre-emptively treating post-operative nausea. Ginger is a safe remedy for nausea relief during pregnancy.  Ginger as a remedy for motion sickness is still a debated issue. The television program Mythbusters performed an experiment using one of their staff who suffered from severe motion sickness. The staff member was placed in a moving device which, without treatment, produced severe nausea. Multiple treatments were administered. None, with the exception of the ginger and the two most common drugs, were successful. The staff member preferred the ginger due to lack of side effects. Several studies over the last 20 years were inconclusive with some studies in favor of the herb and some not.  A common thread in these studies is the lack of sufficient participants to yield statistical significance. Another issue is the lack of a known chemical pathway for the supposed relief.

The characteristic odor and flavor of ginger is caused by a mixture of zingerone, shogaols and gingerols, volatile oils that compose one to three percent of the weight of fresh ginger. In laboratory animals, the gingerrols increase the motility of the gastrointestinal tract and have analgesic, sedative, antipyretic and antibacterial properties.  Ginger oil has been shown to prevent skin cancer in mice and a study at the University of Michigan demonstrated that gingerols can kill ovarian cancer cells.   [6]-gingerol (1-[4'-hydroxy-3'-methoxyphenyl]-5-hydroxy-3-decanone) is the major pungent principle of ginger. The chemopreventive potentials of [6]-gingerol present a promising future alternative to expensive and toxic therapeutic agents.

Ginger contains up to three percent of a fragrant essential oil whose main constituents are sesquiterpenoids, with (-)-zingiberene as the main component. Smaller amounts of other sesquiterpenoids (β-sesquiphellandrene, bisabolene and farnesene) and a small monoterpenoid fraction (β-phelladrene, cineol, and citral) have also been identified.

The pungent taste of ginger is due to nonvolatile phenylpropanoid-derived compounds, particularly gingerols and shogaols, which form from gingerols when ginger is dried or cooked. Zingerone is also produced from gingerols during this process; this compound is less pungent and has a spicy-sweet aroma.  Ginger is also a minor chemical irritant, and because of this was used as a horse suppository by pre-World War I mounted regiments for feaguing.

Ginger has a sialagogue action, stimulating the production of saliva, which makes swallowing easier.

(from Wikipedia)

Gingerol

Fresh Ginger essential oil is a colorless to pale yellow liquid displaying a tangy, warm fresh, light, citrus(topnote), aromatic-spicy bouquet with an sweet, woody-balsamic undertone of good tenacity

In natural perfumery used in spice accords, culinary perfumes, Oriental bases, spice accords (from White Lotus Aromatics Blog)