by Annie Wei-Yu Kan

I’m not going to say conjunctions are like a kind of food. The food of a sentence is the nouns and verbs, and they get extra flavour from the things that modify them. A conjunction is different. It’s part of how you serve the food.

You do know what conjunctions are, don’t you? Words such as and, but, or, and phrases such as as well as and as soon as. Someone must have taught you that much. Look, I’m going to go ahead and you’ll understand.

I assume you’ve eaten in some plain places and some fancy places. You know that sometimes you get one course and there are several kinds of food at once that you put all on one plate, and sometimes there’s only one kind of food and one dish, and sometimes there are several courses with one kind of food per plate, and sometimes there are even several courses with multiple kinds of food on one plate in each course.

A simple sentence is like a simple meal with one kind of food on one plate. That’s no problem. Once you have more than one kind of food, and maybe more than one plate, you start having conjunctions.

Some conjunctions are like your plate peeking through between different pieces of food in the same serving. If you have a single piece of beef, there are no gaps and no conjunctions:

This is a piece of beef.

If you have beans, however, there are several of them.

I have a bean, and another bean, and another bean.

The space on the dish between pieces of the same food is like the conjunction.

This is how it works when the conjunction is joining words in the same clause. You know that a clause has a subject and a predicate, right? Yes, yes, it’s a sentence, except when you have a complex sentence that’s made of several clauses. But within a clause, this is my point, you may say a teacher is stern but effective. You may say a person is immature or deluded or sick. (It is normal to use commas in place of most of the ands or ors in a series. Do not take my examples as an endorsement of conjunctionitis.)

Yes, I know that even if you eat just one piece of beef on a plate there’s some plate showing. I’m using metaphors. They have their limits.

When you have a complex sentence that’s made of multiple clauses, they also have a structure joining them together. This is like having several different kinds of food on the same plate. The conjunctions that join clauses are like the bits of plate showing through between different food items:

I will teach you and you will learn.

I did my best with him and I thought there was hope but I was mistaken.

Either he is a child in a man’s body or he is a complete sociopath.

(Note the coordinating conjunction. This is like when a person serves you roast beef on one side of the plate to leave room for the mashed potatoes on the other side. If you do not use the right pair of conjunctions, this is like leaving no room, or serving both on the same side of the plate. Obviously it would be a disturbed individual who would eat their mashed potatoes on top of their roast beef.)

You see that the conjunctions joining clauses look the same as the ones within a clause. They are the same. (There are exceptions, but I have space limitations.) They are, however, doing different work.

Yes, yes, they’re still joining things. But it would be strange to take half of your beans and put them on one plate and the other half on another. On the other hand, it is not so strange to serve different food items on different plates. If you are served a vegetable course of green beans amandine, it may come on a nice little plate separate from the plate set up for your beef Wellington.

More to the point, you can serve your main dish at one point in the evening. And then later, after decent time to digest, you can serve dessert.

Did you see what I did there? I don’t do these things by accident. Pay attention. I started the second sentence with a conjunction. I’ve started a few sentences with conjunctions here. Did you wonder why I did that? Perhaps you were taught that you’re not supposed to do that?

If you were taught that you’re not supposed to do that, stop heeding whatever the person who taught you that taught you. Because they followed superstitions.

Did you see that? I did it again. Only this time it was worse, according to the superstition. Why? Because because is a subordinating conjunction, while and and but and or are coordinating conjunctions.

Let me make this easy for you to picture. An article, or a story, or any document (don’t kid yourself, we know you spend your time writing business letters), is like a meal. Some documents have only one sentence and some meals have only one dish. But good meals have several dishes, and good documents have several (or many) sentences.

A coordinating conjunction is like when you have two different kinds of food at the same time; if they’re in the same sentence, they’re on the same plate, but you can have them on separate plates at the same time:

I served perfect nachos. And my guests were amazed.

A subordinating conjunction is one that introduces a subordinate clause. That’s like a plate that’s designed to fit onto another plate. Think of the dip bowl that goes in the middle of your big bowl for chips, or the sour cream and salsa dishes in the middle of your plate of nachos.

I served my special nachos, which are always steaming hot.

The superstition is that if you take the subordinate clause and make a separate sentence of it, bad things will happen.

I dumped the nachos on Dirk’s lap. Which is what he deserved.

Trust me: bad things may happen if you sentence yourself to be married to a person of subnormal character, but bad things will not automatically happen just because you moved that salsa dish over to the table beside the chips. Just keep it on the table.

Some people apparently grew up eating only one-plate meals. How sad for them. And how odd for them to think that it is somehow superior to believe that things cannot be served on separate plates. And how strangely narrow for them only to focus on one plate at a time. When they eat multi-course meals – if they ever do – do they forget about each dish as soon as they have eaten it?

You see, if I make a separate sentence out of something that starts with a conjunction, I’m not making a whole new article out of it. It still has the other sentence before it. If you move the salsa dish onto the table next to the nacho plate, you’re not serving only a dish of salsa. The nachos are right there. Sometimes it works better to get the salsa dish off the top of them and over to the side.

This is important. I’m going to say it again, because you were probably thinking about eating instead of writing. When you write something, it’s like a multi-course meal. Sentences do not exist in isolation. If there is a conjunction at the beginning of a sentence, that’s because there was a sentence before it. Perhaps in the same paragraph. Perhaps in a previous paragraph. Perhaps in a previous chapter. But nobody is expecting you to eat the salsa by itself. That would be abnormal and a sign of derangement.

Make no mistake: how much of this you can do depends on the formality of the occasion. Conjunctions at the beginnings of sentences are frowned on in formal contexts, mainly because of superstition. You can’t eradicate superstitions, so you have to know that other people believe them. But you don’t have to believe them.

Relationships

by Dirk E. Oldman

It’s all fine and dandy to talk in the abstract about things and to spend all your time on the food, but if you really want to, you know, live, you need to get into the action and deal with people and the ways they are involved with one another.

I know you’re going to think, “Oh, please, Dirk is now on about relationships? That sounds rather touchy-feely.” Well, yes, it is. If you’re going to touch and feel someone, it matters where you stand with them. Conjunctions join, but how they join varies. Consider these differences:

At the party, I saw John and Anna.

At the party, I saw John. And Anna.

At the party, I saw both John and Anna.

At the party, I saw John with Anna.

At the party, I saw John or Anna.

Someone is already about to point out that with is not a conjunction. It’s true, prepositions are not the same class of word, and I’m not going to spend much time talking about them today, but they do join things together in their own way. And sometimes a good proposition can lead to a good conjunction.

But as Annie has already discussed at great length, conjunctions get around a lot more. Prepositions just join noun phrases to things, but conjunctions can join things or phrases or clauses. Still, in some cases a word that serves as a preposition in one sentence can serve as a conjunction in another:

She kept him for immoral purposes.

She kept him, for immoral purposes interested her.

And here’s the thing. You can have relationships between people, and you can also have relationships between things people do and even between different ways people are. (Things too.) Let’s look at some options:

He said “Please, mistress,” but she spanked him.

He said “Please, mistress,” and she spanked him.

He said “Please, mistress,” because she spanked him.

He said “Please, mistress,” or she spanked him.

He said “Please, mistress,” so she spanked him.

Yep. Conjunctions are some of the real motors of the polymorphous perversity of language, especially this wonderfully sick tongue we’re speaking right now.

Some conjunctions travel in pairs, and you need to know which one goes with which other one or it’s going to be like wife-swapping all over again. Sometimes some pair or group of people are always seen together, and sometimes some actions are always done together – and, on the other hand, some people are never seen together and some actions are never done together.

And sometimes when they’re alone they’re not conjunctions – they take off the wedding ring. Including when they’re near the wrong conjunction. Here, look – conjunctions in bold:

He put it between her legs.

He put it between her legs and her chest.

He put it between her legs to her chest.

She felt him with both hands.

She felt him with both hands and tongue.

She felt him with both hands or her tongue.

You can do it with either hand.

You can do it with either hand or mouth.

You can do it with either hand and mouth.

If you have the wrong second half, they just don’t get it on. They do their own things. Or it gets really awkward:

Either John and his date risked arrest.

Some conjunctions don’t care too much about order, except for emphasis:

I screwed her or she screwed him.

She screwed him or I screwed her.

For others, it matters more, just like you need to have the foreplay before the main event.

I screwed her and then she screwed him.

And for some, the relationship is not so much order as domination or requirement:

I won’t touch you unless you put this on.

Unless you put this on, I won’t touch you.

Easy to have the dominant partner by itself:

I won’t touch you.

Harder to have the submissive partner by itself:

Unless you put this on.

But, as my ex-wife has pointed out in her cold and food-fascinated way, “by itself” is relative. Sometimes you need to take a rest to, uh, recharge, but it’s not an isolated act. And sometimes the relationship just isn’t that close. You need to put a little space into it. Or each part deserves its own focus. Here are some more examples:

I don’t wear rubber suits, but I could make an exception.

I don’t wear rubber suits. But I could make an exception.

We can use whipped cream or salsa whenever you want, unless you don’t want.

We can use whipped cream. Or salsa. Whenever you want. Unless you don’t want.

You can’t tell me they’re the same. You can hear them being said differently. These things matter.

Still, you need to know when you can get away with breaking them up and when not. If you’re working on formal prose, it’s like being with professionals: they’re on the clock and they get tetchy if you keep putting on the brakes.

But even the pros have nothing against adding to the fun. In fact, sometimes, the more the merrier. There’s really no limit.

Although she didn’t have to, she dressed as if she were a French maid as soon as she could whenever she heard that he was coming because she knew that he liked it, whereas he made sure to wear his mouse costume, since French maids like to beat mice with a broom while they scream.

That’s ten conjunctions joining eleven acts. A regular orgy. Between every one you have a subject and a verb and sometimes an object; some of the conjunctions (that) are complementizers, a special kind of conjunction that makes its action an object. And it’s all perfectly proper English.

Building sentences is like playing with Lego.

That is what language is like, and German is no exception. Now we’ve learned about basic German sentence structure. That German is a time, manner, place (wann, wie, wo) language. We’ve seen how you construct questions and answer them using the language pieces they entail. But sometimes we want to go a little further and not simply provide a simple answer, but want to elaborate on it. Well here’s the good news, you have many of the pieces built now and we just need to put those together.

There are three types of ways to join sentences in German and each has a specific use. Today we’re going to look at coordinating conjunctions (Konjunktionen). Conjunctions allow us to combine independent clauses.

What is an independent clause (Hauptsatz)? As the name suggests an independent clause is a sentence that can stand on its own. It does not rely on anything else. It has a subject and a verb and usually an object. Up to now we’ve pretty much been constructing only independent clauses.

There are five key coordinating conjunctions in German: aber, denn, oder, sondern, and und. These are great because the combined independent clauses do not need to be changed at all in their structure when combined.

Often if the subject is explicitly mentioned in the first clause (ex. Der Tisch, Michael, Das Wetter etc.) it is replaced by a personal pronoun in the second clause. Remember der = er, die = sie and das = es. The one thing that can sometimes be done is the subject can be dropped from the second clause if it is the same as the subject in the first independent clause.

Let’s take a look:

In the examples I’ll color the subjects indigo and the verbs maroon.

und (and)

Und is used to combine two words, two clauses and two sentences. Thus it allows for items to be listed and ideas to be coordinated, summarized and added to the previous. It can replace the following punctuation: comma (Komma (,)), semicolon (Semikolon (;)), period (Punkt (.)), colon (Doppelpunkt (:)), exclamation mark (Ausrufzeichen (!)) and question mark (Fragezeichen (?)). In legal documentation u. is often used to shorten und. The ampersand (&) is only used for names.

Examples of independent clauses being combined:

Die Sonne scheint. Es ist warm. (The sun is shining. It is warm.)

+ und

= Die Sonne scheint und es ist warm.

Die Schweiz ist ein Alpenland in Mitteleuropa. Die Schweiz grenzt an Frankreich, Deutschland, Österreich, Liechtenstein und Italien. (Switzerland is an alpine country in the middle of Europe. Switzerland boarders France, Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein and Italy.)

+ und

= Die Schweiz ist ein Alpenland in Mitteleuropa und grenzt an Frankreich, Deutschland, Österreich, Liechtenstein und Italien.

*Note: Because Switzerland is the subject in both sentences we can drop the second Switzerland when we combine the two.

aber (but)

We use aber as a conjuction when we want the second clause to express something in opposition or contradictory to the first clause. Before aber we need to place a comma.

Examples of independent clauses being combined:

Hannes will nach Berlin fliegen. Sein Chef gibt ihm keine Ferien. (Hannes wants to fly to Berlin. His boss won’t give him any holidays.)

+ aber

= Hannes will nach Berlin fliegen, aber sein Chef gibt ihm keine Ferien.

 Maria soll schlafen. Ihr Freund schnarchelt. (Maria should sleep. Her boyfriend is snoring.)

+ aber

= Maria soll schlafen, aber ihr Freund schnarchelt.

denn (because)

Yes we’ve talked about denn before. Denn is the coordinating conjuction for because. There are also the subordinating conjuctions weil and da. We use denn to provide a reason (Grund) for what happened in the first clause. When we use denn as a conjunction, we dot start the the sentence with it. also note that there is a comma before denn when we use it as a coordinating conjunction.

Examples of independent clauses being combined:

Markus hat heute einen Kater. Gestern hat er zu viel beim Après-Ski getrunken. (Markus has a hangover today. He drank too much at après-ski yesterday.)

+ denn

= Markus hat heute einen Kater, denn gestern hat er zu viel beim Après-Ski getrunken.

Franziska kann heute nicht ins Kino gehen. Franziska muss für ihre Prüfung lernen. (Franziska can’t go to the cinema today. Franziska has to study for her test.)

+ denn

= Franziska kann heute nicht ins Kino gehen, denn sie muss für ihre Prüfung lernen.

oder (or)

We use oder to provide a differentiation between two or more possibilities. Here we speak of two different kinds of oder: exclusive (when not all the options are possible to choose) and inclusive (when all options are possible to choose.) When used to give an exclusive option it is often used in combination with entweder as in “entweder … oder” (either … or). We can also use oder for showing a consequence. Again, oder is often used as a particle, so be careful with this one. The short forms for oder are o. and od.

Examples of independent clauses being combined:

Exclusive (entweder … oder)

Du hast einen bekannten Vater. Wenn du keinen bekannten Vater hast, hast du einen unbekannten Vater. (You know your father. If you don’t know your father, then you have an unknown father.)

+ entweder … oder

= Du hast entweder einen bekannten oder einen unbekannten Vater. (You either know who your father is or you don’t.)

Inclusive

Gehst du heute ins Kino? Gehst du heute noch Einen trinken? Wir können auch beide. (Are you going to the cinema? Are you going for a drink? We can also do both.)

+ oder

= Gehst du heute ins Kino oder noch Einen trinken — oder wollen wir es verbinden? (Are you going to the cinema or out for a drink — or do we want to do both?)

Consequence

Komm her! Wenn du nicht herkommst, gibt es Ärger. (Come here! If you don’t come here, there’ll be trouble.)

+ oder

= Komm her, oder es gibt Ärger! (Come here, or there’ll be trouble!)

sondern (but, rather, but rather)

Now you might wonder what is the difference between aber and sondern. The answer is that sondern is only used after a negative clause where in the second clause the positive opposite is given. This is particularly useful when answering questions in the negative, but wanting to add clarification. Ex. Gehst du nach Hause? Nein, ich gehe nicht nach Hause, sondern ins Fitnessstudio. (Are you going home? No, I’m not going home, but rather to the gym.)

When we want to highlight two qualities of something we often use the construction nicht nur … sonder auch.

Examples of independent clauses being combined:

Ich komme heute nicht nach Hause. Ich übernachte bei meiner Freundin. (I’m not coming home today. I’m staying the night at my girlfriend’s.)

+ sondern

= Ich komme heute nicht nach Hause, sondern übernachte bei einem Freund

 Diese Ski sind sehr gut. Sie sind günstig. (These skis are very good. They are well priced.)

+ nicht nur … sonder auch

= Diese Ski sind nicht nur sehr gut, sondern auch günstig. (These skis are not only very good, but also well priced.)

And there we have it, the coordinating conjunctions in German. Note that the word order does not have to change when we combine sentences using coordination conjunctions. However, using conjunctions allows you to often drop out words that would repeat or at least switch proper nouns for pronouns. Coordinating conjunctions do not count as a position in a sentence either, remember you could switch them out for punctuation and often make two separate clauses.

Complete this text about the Tschuggen Grand Hotel in Arosa with the correct conjunction.

Wenn der Schnee in diesem Winter auf sich warten lässt, ist das im Tschuggen Grand Hotel kein Problem. Zwar ist die Region um das Schweizer Dorf bekannt für seine Pisten, _______ auch in dem Luxushotel auf über 1800 Metern wird Urlaubern nicht langweilig. Die Küche ist sehr gut, die Architektur ganz toll _______ das Spa so schön, dass manche Gäste am liebsten gar nicht mehr abfahren wollen. Im Winter können Gäste Skifahren gehen _______ einfach im Spa entspannen. Wenn doch genug Schnee liegt: Vom Hotel fährt eine Bergbahn, der Tschuggen Express, direkt ins Skigebiet von Arosa. Das Hotel hat fünf Restaurants _______ eine Bar. Gäste können in einem von 98 Zimmern _______ 32 Suiten übernachten. Eine Übernachtung ist nicht billig, _______ das Hotel ist ein Fünf-Sterne-Hotel Superior.

The Comma Rule

The reporter had a problem with Zen Comma rule D: Put a comma before a coordinating conjunction that joins two sentences. As Zen Comma explains, when you join two complete sentences with the conjunctions and, but, yet, for, so, nor, or or, you need a comma before the conjunction.

Correct Comma Use

As you see in this example, the reporter knows how to follow this rule:

A judge has charged Abelovsky with attempted smuggling, and he faces up to 10 years in prison if convicted.

First independent clause (complete sentence): a judge has charged Abelovsky with attempted smuggling
Second independent clause (complete sentence): he faces up to 10 years in prison if convicted
Coordinating conjunction: and

As you can see, the reporter correctly used a comma before and.

Comma Error

However, the reporter missed it on this one:

Two of the animals were found dead and most of the others could have suffered the same fate due to a lack of oxygen if the suitcase had been placed in the plane’s cargo area.

First independent clause: two of the animals were found dead
Second independent clause: most of the others could have suffered the same fate due to a lack of oxygen if the suitcase had been placed in the plane’s cargo area
Coordinating conjunction: and

Here, the reporter forgot the comma before and.

Preventing Comma Errors

I know very well from experience that proofreading your own writing is challenging. You are likely to miss even very simple errors, as the reporter did here. This is the reason I recommend having someone else do your proofreading. (Yes, I do my own proofreading of these posts, and you are welcome to point out any errors.)

Of course, you have to know the comma rules first before you proofread.

Need help with commas? Get Zen Comma, an instructive reference guide on the 17 major uses and misuses of commas, available in PDF and Kindle formats. Read more about Zen Comma.

Your Writing Companion: Our e-book with samples from each of our writing guides.
Get the free e-book (PDF, 45 pages) or purchase the Kindle version ($0.99).

To vary sentence structure, you may put a descriptive phrase at the end of a sentence. However, readers will usually link descriptions to the closest preceding text. This is not always accurate, so we use a comma to prevent the reader from doing this.

The comma separates the description from the preceding text to show that they are not connected.

The club is disbanding, based on this letter.

In this sample, the letter states that the club is disbanding. If we leave out the comma, the sentence will state that the club is disbanding because of the letter, as seen below.

The club is disbanding based on this letter.

This indicates that the letter, or its contents, is causing the club to disband because disbanding is described by based on this letter. However, with the comma we know that disbanding is not described by based on this letter, leading to the desired interpretation.

This next sample works in a similar way.

He saw the corpse, swimming in the lake.

If we leave out the comma, the reader will think swimming in the lake is a description of the corpse, as if the corpse were swimming in the lake. Rather, swimming in the lake is a description of He. To prevent the incorrect, and odd, interpretation, we must separate the final description with a comma.

This bring us to the next type of comma uses with final descriptions.

Zen Comma Rule X: Use commas to separate non-grammatical final descriptions.

In other cases, the final description is not grammatically connected to the preceding sentence. Similar to Rule W, this can happen when the final description refers to the subject or main verb but not to the words that immediately precede the description. Consider this example:

He drove all day, unable to wait longer.

In this sample, unable to wait longer describes the subject He, not drove all day. Unlike previous examples, we cannot remove the comma and still have a grammatically correct sentence, as follows.

He drove all day unable to wait longer. (grammatically incorrect sentence)

These are a form of free modifiers, a descriptive phrase that can be moved around in the sentence. If they can’t be moved around without making the sentence confusing, they are not free modifiers and don’t need a comma. If they can be moved around, they are free modifiers, and they need commas.

Zen Comma Rule Y: Use commas to separate final coordinate expressions.

We know to put a comma between coordinate adjectives. This can also affect how we use commas with final descriptions. If the final two descriptive phrases or expressions equally describe the same thing, they are coordinate, and we separate them with a comma, as seen here:

The legislation is dead, not delayed.

To show that dead and not delayed are coordinate, we can break up the sentence as follows:

The legislation is dead. The legislation is not delayed.

Here, we see that dead and not delayed both describe legislation. We could write this in two sentences, as I have here, or we can combine them and end the sentence with both descriptions. When I combine the sentences, these two descriptions are coordinate and require a comma.

Zen Comma Rule Z: Use a comma to indicate a shift in focus at the end of the sentence.

This is fairly simple. Take a look at this sample:

The audience seemed tired, an understandable response to the boring 3-hour lecture.

The main sentence is about the audience. However, the final description is not so much about the audience as it is about the boring lecture. This is a shift in the focus of the sentence. As such, it is separated by a comma.

Need help with commas? Get Zen Comma, an instructive reference guide on the 17 major uses and misuses of commas, available in PDF and Kindle formats. Read more about Zen Comma.

Your Writing Companion: Our e-book with samples from each of our writing guides: Get the free e-book (PDF, 45 pages) or purchase the Kindle version ($0.99).

Like I said, they’re tricky. The two samples below represent common confusion, and common mistakes, with commas. I’ll give you a hint: they are both correct as is. The question, therefore, is why don’t we need to add any commas?

Example 1:

We discovered that the ion plays a role in fuel production [comma?] and the ion is not detectable using X-ray technologies.

We know the rule about putting a comma before a coordinating conjunction that joins two independent clauses (Rule D), as in “The dog ran, and the cat slept.” This rule seems to apply to the first example. “We discovered . . . fuel production” looks like one independent clause. “The ion is not . . . technologies” looks like another. Shouldn’t a comma be before “and”?

No, and here’s why. The subject of the sentence is “We,” and the main verb is “discovered.” The direct object of “discovered” is “that the ion plays a role in fuel production.” Now, let’s look more carefully. We realize that, in fact, two things were discovered:

1. that the ion plays a role in fuel production, and
2. that the ion is not detectable using X-ray technologies.

That entire second part is NOT a new independent clause. Instead, it is a direct object of “discovered,” which has the subject “We.” This sentence has only one subject and verb: “We discovered.” With only one subject and verb, we have only one independent clause, not two!

You might also see that the second part has an implied “that,” as in “that the ion is not….” When we put “that” back in the sentence, we see, again, that the second part is not an independent clause. As a result, Rule D doesn’t apply. Instead, we apply Rule E: Use commas [or not] as if implied words were present.

Example 2:

Following the seminar, participants were more comfortable with public speaking [comma?] because they had ample practice opportunities.

This one also looks like two independent clauses joined by a conjunction. Here, the conjunction is “because.” The second part, reading “they had ample practice opportunities,” looks like an independent clause, but it’s not.

If we put “and” between two independent clauses, the “and” only serves as a joining word for two separate thoughts. In this case, however, “because” is an essential part of the second idea. It doesn’t join a new idea to the first one. Rather, it is part of the new idea. It has meaning in this sentence, indicating causality. Rather than signaling to the reader that a new independent idea is about to begin, it is the first word of a dependent clause.

Here’s another way to look at this. Whereas “and” and “but” are coordinating conjunctions, “because is a subordinating conjunction. In short, Rule D doesn’t apply, and we don’t need a comma before “because.”

This gives us Rule F: Don’t use a comma before “because” when joining two independent clauses (which it isn’t actually doing

What have we learned about commas? Commas are placed for very specific reasons, and only for those reasons. If we don’t have a reason to use a comma, we don’t. If we do, we do.

Need help with commas? Get Zen Comma, an instructive reference guide on the 17 major uses and misuses of commas, available in PDF and Kindle formats. Read more about Zen Comma.

Your Writing Companion: Our e-book with samples from each of our writing guides: Get the free e-book (PDF, 45 pages) or purchase the Kindle version ($0.99).

Bumbo approached his teacher with a concerned look on his face. “Teacher,” he said, “some commas seem optional. How do I know whether or not to use them?”

In response, the teacher asked him, “Two bridges cross the river. One bridge is missing steps, and the other is whole. Which do you use?”

The Comma Lesson:

A sentence missing commas is like a foot bridge missing steps

Some commas are required, and some seem optional. However, if some of the commas are missing, the reader might get confused. The teacher wants Bumbo to choose the option that has the greatest chance of helping the reader understand the sentence. This means Bumbo needs to put in all the commas, even the optional ones.

 Applying the Comma Lesson:

Let’s look at two examples where the comma seems optional.

1. According to this, transcription service can take a long time.

This example has a comma to separate the introductory description from the main sentence (Zen Comma Rule G). Some style guides and writing instructors claim that you only need a comma in this place if the introductory description is short, such as fewer than 5 words.

The descriptive phrase here is only 3 words: “According to this.” Thus, those guides and instructors would claim that this example doesn’t need a comma. They would argue for “According to this transcription service can take a long time.”

Here’s the problem. Without the comma, a reader may interpret this multiple ways. For example, the reader may think the sentence is structured this way:

Description: According to this transcription
Main sentence: service can take a long time

Without the comma in place, the reader may not know which word is the subject, which is the fundamental purpose of the comma here. Is the subject “transcription service” or just “service”? The comma lets the reader know when the description is finished and the main sentence will begin.

2: I am a biker, and a runner can’t catch me.

This example has a comma before the conjunction (“and”) that joins two independent clauses (Zen Comma Rule D).

Some style guides and writing instructors claim you don’t need that comma if the independent clauses are short. Of course, they don’t define “short.” The two independent clauses here are 4 and 5 words, respectively. If 4 words is “short,” then those guides and instructors may argue for “I am a biker and a runner can’t catch me.”

Here’s the problem. Upon reading this, the reader may think that I am both a biker and a runner, as in, “I am a biker and a runner.” This seems like a complete thought. Then the reader gets to “can’t catch me,” which doesn’t make sense. The reader will have to re-read the sentence and try to figure it out.

Without the comma in place, the reader may have difficulty separating the two main ideas in the sentence. Most likely, the reader will figure it out upon re-reading, but that’s more work than the reader should have to do. Also, the reader will be thinking about the writing, not the content. The comma tells the reader when the first main idea is finished and the next one begins.

What I Do with Optional Commas

I take advice from Bumbo’s comma teacher. To increase clarity and the potential for reader understanding, I put in all the commas, even the commas that seem optional.

Need help with commas? Get Zen Comma, an instructive reference guide on the 17 major uses and misuses of commas, available in PDF and Kindle formats. Read more about Zen Comma.

Your Writing Companion: Our e-book with samples from each of our writing guides: Get the free e-book (PDF, 45 pages) or purchase the Kindle version ($0.99).

And guess what I found? A great sample for the Zen Comma blog. 

From Act 1, scene 2, we can read one of the best dialogues Shakespeare ever wrote. On one side, we have Anne. She is standing by the corpse of her late husband, King Henry VI. On the other side, we have Richard, the Duke of Gloucester. He killed her husband. She is angry at him, spitting curses, making insults, and generally loathing everything about him. However, he has come with a purpose. 

Richard plans to be king, and he wants to marry Anne to help protect him from her family members who are still loyal to the previous ruling family. He approaches her while she stands at the bloody body of her late husband, and he attempts to convince her to marry him. After a few exchanges, we see him reveal his intentions. 

Let’s read it together, and then we’ll look at the commas. This is, after all, the Zen Comma blog. (The entire scene is here: http://www.gutenberg.org/catalog/world/readfile?fk_files=1444575&pageno=9.)

ANNE: . . . Didst thou not kill this king?

GLOUCESTER: I grant ye.

ANNE: Dost grant me, hedgehog? Then, God grant me
Thou mayst be damned for that wicked deed!
O, he was gentle, mild, and virtuous!

GLOUCESTER: The better for the King of Heaven, that hath him.

ANNE: He is in heaven, where thou shalt never come.

GLOUCESTER: Let him thank me that holp to send him thither,
For he was fitter for that place than earth.

ANNE: And thou unfit for any place but hell.

GLOUCESTER: Yes, one place else, if you will hear me name it.

ANNE: Some dungeon.

GLOUCESTER: Your bed-chamber.

Great stuff, yes? Now, let’s read it again and look at the commas.

ANNE: . . . Didst thou not kill this king?

GLOUCESTER: I grant ye.

ANNE: Dost grant me, hedgehog? Then, God grant me
first comma: Commas around names for the person you are addressing or speaking to. She is calling him a hedgehog as a nickname. (Rule M)
second comma: Commas around interjections. Here, “then” is not being used to tell when something happened, altough it would need a comma in that case, too. It’s an interjection, just like we see two lines down. (Rule I)
Thou mayst be damned for that wicked deed!
O, he was gentle, mild, and virtuous!
first comma: Commas around interjections, in this case “O.” (Rule I)
second and third commas: Commas to separate every item in a series of three or more. Notice that this uses the serial comma, the comma before “and,” “but,” or “or” in a series. (Rule A)

GLOUCESTER: The better for the King of Heaven, that hath him.
This comma seems troubling, but it isn’t. “that hath him” is a non-restictive phrase to describe “King of Heaven.” As a non-restrictive phrase, it is separated with commas. Normally, in a case like this, we would use “who” rather than “that,” but calling God “who” may have seemed a bit too informal to Shakespeare, or even to Gloucester who was pretending to be the pious one here. (Rule U)

ANNE: He is in heaven, where thou shalt never come.
Another comma to separate a non-restictive phrase. The expression starting with “where” is a description of “heaven.” If we leave off this comma, we might come to the conclusion that there is another heaven where Richard would be welcome. A more modern version of this might read “which is where thou….” (Rule T)

GLOUCESTER: Let him thank me that holp to send him thither,
For he was fitter for that place than earth.
The comma is before the conjunction that separates the two independent clauses. “For” is a coordinating conjunction, and when used to join two complete sentences, it needs to be preceded by a comma. (Rule D)

ANNE: And thou unfit for any place but hell.

GLOUCESTER: Yes, one place else, if you will hear me name it.
first comma: The comma after “yes” separates the interjection from the rest of the sentence. (Rule I)
second comma: I hate to say it, but I think that one’s there only to indicate a little pause, creating some emotional tension. This is an “artistic” comma, not a grammatical comma. An artistic comma is placed purposefully to force a pause, such as to increase the impact of whatever follows. This differs from a grammatical comma, which is placed in response to the grammatical structure of a sentence.

ANNE: Some dungeon.

GLOUCESTER: Your bed-chamber.

If you’re not familiar with Shakespeare’s works, his tragedies and histories, in particular, this is a good one to start with. And Shakespeare is, as we can see, a comma master.

Need help with commas? Get Zen Comma, an instructive reference guide on the 17 major uses and misuses of commas, available in PDF and Kindle formats. Read more about Zen Comma.

Your Writing Companion: Our e-book with samples from each of our writing guides: Get the free e-book (PDF, 45 pages) or purchase the Kindle version ($0.99).

If you read Eats, Shoots and Leaves for the rules and guidelines she espouses, you’ll do fine. However, if you read it to immerse yourself in clear, consistent, and accurate writing that exemplifies good punctuation use, you may be confused. 

Commas with Introductory Descriptions

We can find many cases of inconsistent usage, such as Truss’s use of a comma when she starts sentences with nowadays, as follows:

Nowadays, the convention for starting a new sentence with a capital letter…. (p. 23)
Nowadays the fashion is against grammatical fussiness. (p. 95)
Nowadays we write…. (p. 187)

The first example is correct. We put a comma after introductory adverbial descriptions, including nowadays. (Introductory = before the subject; adverbial = modifies or describes the main verb in some way) This follows Zen Comma Rule G: Put a comma after introductory clauses and phrases. 

In Truss’s defense, she has many sentences that start with meanwhile, and in every case I found, they are followed by a comma. For example, she writes, “Meanwhile, the full stop is surely the simplest mark to understand….” (p. 23) 

But this article is not about inconsistency in punctuation. Rather, it is about following the rules you espouse. Here’s my theory: if you say that something is a rule that must be followed, follow it. 

Commas when Joining Sentences 

Truss correctly points out the error of comma splices on pages 87 and 88. A comma splice is created when two complete sentences (a.k.a. independent clauses) are joined by only a comma–no conjunction, just the comma. 

For example, this sentence from page 28 has a comma splice: 

Sticklers unite, you have nothing to lose but your sense of proportion, and arguably you didn’t have a lot of that to begin with.

“Sticklers unite” is a complete sentence. [Read: Sticklers, unite!] The next complete sentence begins with “you have nothing to lose.” These are two complete sentences joined by only a comma, i.e., a comma splice. (It has other comma problems, too, but we’re focusing on the comma splice.) 

Like me, Truss espouses the rule of using a conjunction with a comma to join sentences, following Zen Comma Rule D: Put a comma before a coordinating conjunction that joins two independent clauses.

Here’s my point: if you ridicule a particular error, don’t make it yourself.

Who Is to Blame?

Do I blame Lynn Truss for these errors and inconsistencies? Not really. Sure, she has the final responsibility for what goes in her book. Any writer has the responsibility to make sure a book is well edited. Still, I can’t give her all the blame. I mainly blame her editor. 

Editing and proofreading your own text is very, very difficult. But that’s what editors are for—to make sure the writer’s text is correct, consistent, and clear. Smart writers have editors. Truss is pretty smart, so I assume her book was edited by another person. If this is the case, her editor failed. 

Does my own writing have errors? Sure. For published materials, though, I always, always have someone else read through it. For blog posts…not usually. (You’re free to point them out to me, by the way.)

Shame, shame on the editor of Eats, Shoots and Leaves.

Need help with commas? Get Zen Comma, an instructive reference guide on the 17 major uses and misuses of commas, available in PDF and Kindle formats. Read more about Zen Comma.

Your Writing Companion: Our e-book with samples from each of our writing guides: Get the free e-book (PDF, 45 pages) or purchase the Kindle version ($0.99).

This morning, while reading about the missing tattoo from Canalis’s arm, I found a good example. (No, I’m not interested in Dancing with the Stars; I’m amused when air-brushers get caught manipulating photos. Really.)

Here’s the sentence:

Yes, she is wearing a white wristband, but her tattoo is actually a bit farther up the arm, so we probably should be able to see it. (http://tv.yahoo.com/blogs/yahoo-tv/elisabetta-canalis-tattoos-mysteriously-absent-dwts-photos-183047182.html)

This sentence has three great commas demonstrating two uses of commas.

Comma with Interjections

First, we see a comma after “Yes.” In this sentence, “Yes” is serving as an interjection, much like No and Gosh at the beginnings of sentences. This interjection is correctly followed by a comma, following Zen Comma Rule I: Separate interjections with commas.

We can turn to Zen Comma for another example of interjections separated from the sentence: “I have, alas, more than I need.” “Alas” is the interjection.

Comma Joining Sentences

Next, we see two more commas that do the same thing, precede a conjunction to join complete sentences. In fact, if we look at the sentence carefully, we can recognize that it is actually three complete sentences joined together.

1. Yes, she is wearing a white wristband.
2. Her tattoo is actually a bit farther up the arm.
3. We probably should be able to see it.

Each of these sentences is joined with a comma and a conjunction, which is correct. The first two sentences are joined using a comma with but. The second two sentences are joined using a comma with so.

Using a comma with a conjunction to join two complete sentences (a.k.a. Independent Clause) follows Zen Comma Rule D: Put a comma before a coordinating conjunction that joins two independent clauses.

For reference, not all conjunctions can be used this way, only coordinating conjunctions: For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So. (I use the acronym FAN BOYS to remember this list.)

Need help with commas? Get Zen Comma, an instructive reference guide on the 17 major uses and misuses of commas, available in PDF and Kindle formats. Read more about Zen Comma.

Your Writing Companion: Our e-book with samples from each of our writing guides: Get the free e-book (PDF, 45 pages) or purchase the Kindle version ($0.99).

Apostrophe rules are on page 35

There, They’re, Their

Its and It’s

1.  Sentences, Questions, Commands, and Exclamations: 

Declarative Sentences – Declarative Sentence make statements

Interrogative Sentences – Interrogative sentences Ask Questions

Imperative Sentences – Imperative Sentences give commands

Exclamatory Sentences – Exclamatory Sentences express surprise or some other strong emotion

2.  Types of Sentences:

Writers should add a variety of sentence structures to his/her writing.  A good way to do this is to mix simple, complex, compound and compound complex sentences.

A Simple Sentence contains one Independent clause (An Independent Clause = A subject, a Verb and it makes sense on it’s own)

Example: Kara raised her hand.

A Compound Sentence contains two ore more independent clauses connected with one or more Coordinating Conjunctions (Coordinating Conjunctions include: and, but, or, nor, so, for, yet), or with a semicolon alone, or with a semicolon transitional expression.

Example:  She raised her hand, and the whole class was surprised.

Example: She raised her hand, but nobody else responded.

Example:  She raised her hand; the whole class was surprised

A Complex Sentence contains an Independent Clause and one or more Dependent Clause ( A dependent Clause must always be connected to an independent clause.  If you begin a sentence with when, because, although, or some other subordinating conjunction, connect that clause to an independent clause. )

Example: (Dependent Clause) When she raised her hand, the whole class was surprised (Independent Clause)

Example: (Independent Clause) The whole class was surprised when she raised her hand (Dependent Clause)

A Compound-Complex Sentence contains at least two Independent Clauses and at least one Dependent Clause

Example:: (Dependent Clause) When she raised her hand, the whole class was surprised, and

(Independent Clause) the professor waited eagerly, as she began to speak (Dependent Clause)

3.  Sentence Beginnings:

There are plenty of ways for you to spice up the beginning of your sentences!   Here are a few variations that you can use to begin your sentences.  Try not to repeat a certain beginning to many times because it can become stylistic, which could bore readers.  Here are some examples:

Example 1 – Begin with a Dependent Clause or a Phrase

(Dependent Clause stops at comma) While my friends were waiting for the movie to begin, they ate three tubs of popcorn.

(Phrase ends at comma) While waiting for the movie to begin, my friends ate three tubs of popcorn

Example 2 – Being with an Participle or an adjective.  (A participle is simply a word that has characteristics of a Verb and Adjective) A sentence can begin with a participle or an adjective if the word is in a phrase that refers to the subject of the independent clause.

(Adjective) Aware of the problems, they nevertheless decided to continue.

(Past Participle) Forced to work late, they ordered a pepperoni pizza.

The thing that confuses many German learners is that they are taught denn early on but they mostly hear and read this other word — weil — for because. Two words with the same logical linking task and with the same English meaning. “Why?” you ask yourself are there two words and how are they different? Before we get stated I’m just going to throw one more word into the mix, because it can also mean because — da. There we have it, three words for because. Before you bang your head on your desk or laptop keyboard with frustration read on and discover how to use these conjunctions correctly.

We use denn as a way of providing a reason for the action or claim of the first clause. Let’s look at how we put this together.

Ex.

Es geht ihm schlecht, denn er hat gestern Abend zu viel getrunken.

Phil geht es schlecht. Er hat gestern Abend zu viel Bier getrunken.

• Phil isn’t doing too well. He drank too much beer last night.

Phil geht es schlecht, denn er hat gestern Abend zu viel Bier getrunken.

• Phil isn’t doing too well, because he drank too much beer last night.

Warum geht es Phil schlecht? — Denn er hat gestern Abend zu viel Bier getrunken.

• Why isn’t Phil doing too well? — Because he drank too much beer last night.

All that is happening here is that two independent clauses are being brought together and written as one. There is absolutely no need to change the word order in the clauses. We should also note at this point that conjunctions do not count as grammatical places. You can reverse test your use of a coordinating conjunction by replacing it with a full stop (period). Do the two sentences make sentence? Are they two independent clauses — two complete ideas? If yes, then you’ve used the coordinating conjunction correctly.

So why is it that there are two other words for because in German? The subordinating conjunctions weil and da allow us to do something called inversion. But let’s take a look at how we can use weil and da.

Ex.

Es geht Alan schlecht, weil er gestern Abend zu viel Bier getrunken hat.

Alan geht es schlecht. Er hat gestern Abend zu viel Bier getrunken.

• Alan isn’t doing too well. He drank too much beer last night.

Alan geht es schlecht, weil er gestern Abend zu viel Bier getrunken hat.

• Alan isn’t doing too well, because he drank too much beer last night.

Weil Alan gestern Abend zu viel Bier getrunken hat, geht es ihm schlecht.

• Because Alan drank too much beer last night, he isn’t doing too well.

Alan geht es schlecht, da er gestern Abend zu viel Bier getrunken hat.

• Alan isn’t doing too well, because he drank too much beer last night.

Da Alan gestern Abend zu viel Bier getrunken hat, geht es ihm schlecht.

• Because Alan drank too much beer last night, he isn’t doing too well.

A subordinating clause cannot stand on its own. It is not a complete idea (weil er gestern Abend zu viel Bier getrunken hat). It leaves the reader or listening asking the question “And… What’s your point?” In German the conjugated verb comes at the end of the subordinating clause. Because of this we can move the subordinating clause to the start of a sentence. When we do this, the entire subordinate clause is considered to be the grammatical position 1. This means that after the comma (,) we need to start the next clause with the conjugated verb.

Standard sentence structure

Inversion

Da and weil are used in the same way in German, though most dictionaries will provide the following meanings:

weil – because
da – since (not as a time reference)
denn – for / because

However, in German usage we do not differentiate any special meaning. What is important is the positioning of the verbs. Also we cannot invert denn sentences. Denn can be used at the start of a sentence when it is an answer to a question started with warum, wieso, or weshalb.

Now some of you are probably very keen listeners when people are speaking to you in German. You pay attention to sentence structure and verb placement and you know without a doubt that you have heard German native speakers using weil like denn.

Ex.

Ich bin heute spät, weil ich habe meinen Zug verpasst.

Wir können am Freitag nicht mit ins Kino, weil wir haben schon Pläne.

Alarm bells should be ringing. Yes, these sentences are grammatically wrong. However, as it is becoming increasingly difficult for people to keep track of what they are thinking and what they want to be saying it has become common for even native speakers to make this mistake.

An argument can be made for its correctness in a case where there is a long pause after weil. The pause after the weil supposedly means “Folgendes der Fall ist:” (the following is the case:).

Ex.

Wir kamen erst um zehn Uhr, weil – der Zug hatte Verspätung.

Wir kamen erst um zehn Uhr, weil Folgendes der Fall ist: Der Zug hatte Verspätung.

Though we can argue for weil being followed by an independent clause, it is easier to learn how to use denn and weil correctly and avoid Grammar arguments.

Exercises:

Combine these two clauses into one. Pay attention to reasoning and causality for potential inversion. Keep the clause order the same.

1. Sie sieht nicht gut aus. Sie ist ganz bleich im Gesicht.

________________________________________________________________________________

2. Der Zug kommt circa 10 Minuten spät an. Es gab einen Unfall.

________________________________________________________________________________

3. Du hast immer Kopfschmerzen. Du sollst zum Arzt gehen.

________________________________________________________________________________

4. Der VW kostet 30’000 Franken. Er ist voll ausgestattet.

________________________________________________________________________________

5. Es regnet heute. Wir bleiben zu Hause.

________________________________________________________________________________

6. Wir müssen früh losfahren. Am Gotthard gibt es viel Stau.

________________________________________________________________________________

7. Alex hat viel gelernt und trainiert. Er spricht heute sehr gutes Deutsch.

________________________________________________________________________________

Answers:

1. Sie sieht nicht gut aus, denn sie ist ganz bleich im Gesicht. / Sie sieht nicht gut aus, weil/da sie ganz bleich im Gesicht ist.

2. Der Zug kommt circa 10 Minuten spät an, denn es gab einen Unfall. / Der Zug kommt circa 10 Minuten spät an, weil/da es einen Unfall gab.

3. Weil/Da du immer Kopfschmerzen hast, sollst du zum Arzt gehen.

4. Der VW kostest 30’000 Franken, denn er ist voll ausgestattet. / Der VW kostest 30’000 Franken, weil/da er voll ausgestattet ist.

5. Weil/Da es heute regnet, bleiben wir zu Hause.

6. Wir müssen früh losfahren, denn am Gotthard gibt es viel Stau. / Wir müssen früh losfahren, weil/da am Gotthard es viel Stau gibt.

7. Weil/Da Alex viel gelernt und trainert hat, spricht er heute sehr gutes Deutsch.

Here are the two most common comma errors I fix. (Your grammar checker probably won’t catch them, but don’t worry. I’ll help you learn how to use commas correctly.)

Two Most Common Comma Errors

Error 1. Comma between two independent clauses. Zen Comma Rule D tells us to put a comma before a coordinating conjunction that joins two independent clauses.

(An independent clause has a subject and predicate and can serve as a complete sentence)

Example: The program was a success [comma] and the director recognized the team’s efforts.

The common mistakes are 1) to leave out the comma, and 2) to put the comma after the conjunction. As seen from the example, the comma goes before the conjunction.

Error 2. Comma after introductory adverbial phrases and clauses. Zen Comma Rule G tells us to put a comma after introductory clauses and phrases.

(An introductory adverbial phrase or clause is before the main subject and describes the predicate, the main verb, in some way)

Example: When John received the letter [comma] he reached for the bottle.

The common mistake is to leave out the comma. As seen from this example, the comma falls between the introductory clause and the subject.

Why This Matters

It’s important to know when to use commas. When we avoid (or correct) these two errors, we produce correct writing that decreases the possibility for reader misunderstanding. Commas improve clarity, and clarity is our most important goal.

Do you struggle knowing when to use commas? Get Zen Comma, an instructive reference guide on the 17 major uses and misuses of commas, available in PDF and Kindle formats. Read more about Zen Comma.

Your Writing Companion: Our e-book with samples from each of our writing guides: Get the free e-book (PDF, 45 pages) or purchase the Kindle version ($0.99).

1. The man entered with a gun.
2. Bank personnel were not amused.

You want to write them in one longer sentence, so you join them together. This is where it gets complicated. Mistakes are common. Care is needed.

First Error: Comma Splice

Because the ideas are closely connected together and form one broader idea, you might join them like this:

*The man entered with a gun, bank personnel were not amused.

Whoops! You just made a comma splice. And that’s an error.

Comma Splice: Joining two independent clauses with only a comma

An independent clause has a subject and a predicate, and it can serve as a complete sentence. In our sample, the first independent clause is The man entered with a gun. That could be a complete sentence. The second independent clause is bank personnel were not amused. That, too, could be a complete sentence.

As we see in this example, you joined the two independent clauses with only a comma, creating a comma splice.

Second Error: Fused Sentence

On the other hand, you might simply join the two ideas without anything to connect them, as follows:

*The man entered with a gun bank personnel were not amused.

Whoops! You just created a fused sentence. And that’s an error.

Fused Sentence: Joining two independent clauses without any type of connector

The second type of error is not a comma error. Rather, it is an error of omission. Here, you have the same two independent clauses, but you have not put anything between them to join them. You fused them together without a connector.

Third Error: Run-on Sentence

Even if you avoid the first two types of errors, you still have to watch out for this one. You know that two independent clauses can be joined with a coordinating conjunction (i.e., for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so). To show how your two ideas are related, you might join them with just the conjunction, like this:

*The man entered with a gun and bank personnel were not amused.

Whoops! You just created a run-on sentence. And that’s an error.

Run-on Sentence: Joining two independent clauses without the appropriate punctuation

Look at the sentence construction. Again, you have the same two independent clauses, and you joined them with a coordinating conjunction, thus avoiding the first two errors. However, that conjunction is all by itself, violating Zen Comma Rule D: Put a comma before a conjunction that joins two independent clauses.

To understand why this is wrong, think about what a comma does. The central purpose of the comma is to indicate parts of a sentence that have a specific meaning. In this sample, you have two major parts, each of which has a specific meaning. You need a comma to indicate where the first meaning ends and the second one begins. In this sample, you left out that comma.

Writers sometimes do this to show how closely the ideas are connected, but it’s an error and must be used infrequently and with great care. If you’re going to make a mistake, such as this one, do it on purpose—not accidentally.

Solutions to the Errors

The solutions to all three errors are the same. If you want to join two independent clauses in a single sentence, you have only three options.

1. Comma + conjunction: The man entered with a gun, and bank personnel were not amused.
2. Semicolon: The man entered with a gun; bank personnel were not amused.
3. Colon: The man entered with a gun: bank personnel were not amused.

Although each of these is correct, I would choose the second option. It has more oomph than the first option because it doesn’t have the conjunction to soften the connection and further separate the ideas. The third option with the colon is not as common as in prior years and may be a little distracting without adding extra value.

Need help with commas? Get Zen Comma, a guide to the 17 major uses and misuses of commas, available in PDF and Kindle formats. Read more about Zen Comma.

Your Writing Companion: Our e-book with samples from each of our writing guides: Get the free e-book (PDF, 45 pages) or purchase the Kindle version ($0.99).

Don’t worry. I’m still thinking about commas.

Problem Sentence

After a day of wrestling with challenging questions and helping teachers learn new processes, I needed a break. The community has a recreation center with a pool, and a swim sounded nice. Posted at the entrance to the pool area was a large sign with pool rules, the first of which was as follows:

No running in the pool, or in the hallways.

I’m not sure why running in the pool is dangerous, but what really caught my attention was that odd comma. Why is it there?

Discussion and Solution

When we parse this sentence, we see that it has a pair of prepositional phrases: in the pool, in the hallways. Now, if the sentence had two independent clauses joined by the conjunction or, it would need a comma there (Zen Comma Rule D). Also, if it had a series of items with or before the last item, it would need that comma (Zen Comma Rule B). But neither situation is the case in this sentence.

The sentence has no reason for a comma before or. That comma is wrong and needs to be removed to fix this sentence.

Similar Cases

This sentence is similar to a sentence with a compound subject (e.g., The man and the dog walked down the street), a sentence with a compound predicate (e.g., The man walked down the street and whistled a tune), and a sentence with a compound object (e.g., The man bought flowers and candy). As we see from these examples, we also don’t use commas to separate compound subjects, predicates, or objects (unless they are in a series).

In spite of the incorrectly written pool rules, the pool was, oh, so nice. In fact, the water was so pleasant that I nearly started running–in the pool.

Need help with commas? Get Zen Comma, a guide to the 17 major uses and misuses of commas, available in PDF and Kindle formats. Read more about Zen Comma.

Your Writing Companion: Our e-book with samples from each of our writing guides: Get the free e-book (PDF) or purchase the Kindle version ($0.99).

The teacher went to the platform to give his lesson on commas. He looked at the students, saying nothing. Then he wrote a comma on the wall and left. “Ah,” said Bumbo. “Missing words need commas, too!”

The Lesson

When the teacher stands before the students, saying nothing, all his words are implied. What Bumbo learns is that whether the sentence contains all the words or whether some words are purposefully left out, a writer needs to use commas as if they were all there. The comma left behind by the teacher indicates that comma rules apply even when some words are missing from a sentence.

First Example: No Comma Needed

Let’s see how this works in a sentence with implied words.

I remember the way that her face glistened in the sun and her eyes sparkled in the candlelight.

If we know Zen Comma Rule D (Put a comma before a coordinating conjunction that joins two independent clauses), we may think we need a comma before the word and. The expression her eyes sparkled in the candlelight looks like an independent clause, a complete sentence.

We would be wrong. To figure out where to put in the commas and where to leave them out, we need to consider what words, if any, are missing from the sentence. We need to follow Zen Comma Rule E: Use commas as if implied words were present.

The implied words in this sample are the way that, as follows.

I remember the way that her face glistened in the sun and (the way that) her eyes sparkled in the candlelight.

Now, with the implied words in place, we see that the way that her eyes sparkled in the candlelight is not an independent clause. It cannot serve as a complete sentence. As such, Rule D does not apply.

We are not joining two independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction, so we do not need a comma before and. When we understand that the sentence has implied (i.e., missing) words, we can figure out how to use the commas.

Second Lesson: Comma Needed

However, as the teacher instructed Bumbo, missing words may require us to add commas, as well. The following sentence also has missing words.

My father drives a Honda, and my mother, too.

This sentence has a comma before and for two reasons. First, if we leave out the comma, the sentence suggests that my father drives both a Honda and my mother (as if she, too, were a car). The comma separates my mother from My father drives to prevent this strange interpretation.

Second, and as importantly, the comma before and is there to follow Zen Comma Rule D: Put a comma before a coordinating conjunction that joins two independent clauses. We have to put in the implied words to find the second independent clause. In this example, the missing words are drives a Honda, as follows.

My father drives a Honda, and my mother (drives a Honda), too.

With the missing words in place, we can easily recognize my mother drives a Honda as an independent clause. Now we see that and is joining two independent clauses, and, following Rule D, it is preceded by a comma. By following Rule E (Use commas as if implied words were present), we know we need to follow Rule D.

Bumbo Is Enlightened

As Bumbo learned, implied words affect where he should use commas and where he should leave them out. To use commas correctly and to communicate clearly and professionally, we need to learn the same lesson.

Need help with commas? Get Zen Comma, a guide to the 17 major uses and misuses of commas, available in PDF and Kindle formats. Read more about Zen Comma.

Your Writing Companion: Our e-book with samples from each of our writing guides: Get the free e-book (PDF, 45 pages) or purchase the Kindle version ($0.99).

I’ll give New Mexico Public Education a thumbs up for being most improved. As you will see, though, there’s still some work to do.

“Great teachers produce great students, and great students are absolutely essential to the future of New Mexico,” said Governor Martinez. New Mexico Public Education Department Secretary-designate Hanna Skandera added, “We want to make sure those teachers who are making a big difference not only get the recognition they deserve, but also to serve as role models and show the full potential we can achieve.” (http://ped.state.nm.us/press/2011/Governor%20Martinez%20forms%20Task%20Force%20to%20Reward%20New%20Mexico%20Teachers%204-25-2011.pdf)

This has 4 commas, and 3 of them are correct, so I give this quotation a 75%, or grade of C.

Comma One: Correct

Look at the first comma in sentence one. The quotation in this sentence has 2 independent clauses: (1) “Great teachers produce great students,” (2) “great students are absolutely essential to the future ofNew Mexico.” Each of these could be a complete sentence. Following Zen Comma Rule D, Put a comma before a coordinating conjunction that joins two independent clauses, this comma is correct. 

Comma Two: Correct

The second comma is at the end of the quotation, and it is inside the quotation. This quotation follows Zen Comma Rule AG: Separate quoted material from the main sentence with a comma, and Rule AH: Put the comma inside the final quotation mark. Based on these two rules, this comma is correct.

Comma Three: Correct

The third comma is before the second quotation. This comma, too, follows Zen Comma Rule AG and is correct.

Comma Four: Wrong

So far, everything is fine. Then we get to the final comma, which is before the “not only” phrase. Zen Comma Rule AI: Don’t separate the two halves of a correlative pair with commas. Correlative pairs (or pairs of correlative conjunctions, to be exact) are expressions such as either…or, neither…or, and not only…but also. The second part of the pair is required to make the sentence grammatically correct. If you have the first part, you need the second part. See that last one, not only…but also?

Based on Rule AI, no comma should precede but also unless required by another rule, such as to separate an appositive (Rule J). This particular comma before but also is a common mistake. Now look again at the text quoted. It has a comma in that place, and it shouldn’t. That comma is wrong.

“We have been working around the clock to restore operations as quickly as possible, and we expect to have some of our games and services up and running soon.”
(From https://www.soe.com/securityupdate/recentupdates.vm.)

This statement has one comma, and it is correct. The comma follows Zen Comma Rule D: Put a comma before a coordinating conjunction that joins two independent clauses.

(An independent clause has a subject and a predicate and can serve as a complete sentence. The coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so.)

The first independent clause is “We have been working around the clock to restore operations as quickly as possible.” This has the subject “We” and the predicate starting with ”have been working.” This independent clause can serve as a complete sentence.

The second independent clause is “we expect to have some of our games and services up and running soon.” This independent clause has the subject “we” and the predicate starting with “expect.” This one, too, can serve as a complete sentence.

Now that we have identified the two independent clauses, we see that they are joined by the coordinating conjunction “and.” Following Rule D, the writer of this statement put a comma before the coordinating conjunction.

This all comes across as nonsensical, especially when we go and reset those same clocks in autumn to do the exact opposite. Sometimes languages come across the same way and there are words or expressions that are either redundant or illogical or both.

This is true of the German words “aber” and “sondern”. If you look them up in a German-English dictionary, you will see the translation as being “but”. A good dictionary will also tell you that they are both coordinating conjunctions, which means that the word order in the clauses does not change. Also note that they are preceded by a comma.

Sommerzeit brauchen wir nicht mehr, aber es gibt sie immer noch.

However, these words are in all actuality different, which is all part of this linguistic precision I keep coming back to that exists in German. When we look at their usage it will become clearer.

Aber links clauses or phrases by providing contrasting additional information. The First clause can be positive or negative.

Ex.

Ich habe meine Uhr vorwärts gedreht, aber ich bin trotzdem verschlafen.

• I turned my clock ahead, but I still overslept.

Nico mag die Stadt, aber er ist auch gern auf dem Land.

• Nico likes the city, but he also likes it in the country.

Lara kocht sehr gern, aber sie spült nicht gerne ab.

• Lara really likes to cook, but she doesn’t like to do the dishes.

Herr Doktor Professor Bernhardt ist heute krank, aber das Seminar findet immer noch statt.

• Professor Bernhardt is ill today, but the seminar is still going to take place.

Sondern links clauses and phrases by providing contrasting corrective information regarding what was said in the first clause or phrase. The information to be corrected must contain a negating word such as nicht, nie, kein etc. The corrective information following sondern can be limited to only those elements that require correction, or it can be a full clause.

In other words ask yourself these two questions and if the answer to both is not yes use aber.

1. The second clause is an opposite or contrast to the first clause (corrective)
2. There is a negation in the first clause that needs correction. (negation)

Fahrräder sind nicht nur günstig, sondern auch gesund.

Ex.

Im Frühling drehen wir die Uhren nicht zurück, sondern vorwärts.

• In the spring we don’t turn the clocks back, but rather forwards.

Bei Marathon Sprachen kann man kein Spanisch lernen, sondern man kann Deutsch und Englisch lernen.

• At Marathon Sprachen one cannot learn Spanish, but one can learn German and English.

Das Geschäft Stilrad im Viadukt verkauft keine Motorräder, sondern Fahrräder.

• The Stilrad shop in the viaduct does not sell motorcycles, but rather bicycles.

Das Buch Swiss Watching von Diccon Bewes wurde nicht auf Deutsch geschrieben, sondern auf Englisch.

• The book Swiss Watching by Diccon Bewes was not written in German, but rather in English.

Sondern is often used in the following combination: “nicht nur … sondern auch” where the “nicht nur” occurs in the first clause and the “sondern auch” in the second. We use this to add emphasis to something.

Ex.

Das Fahrrad ist nicht nur günstig, sondern auch gesund.

• The bicycle isn’t just great value, but it’s also healthy.

Das Buch Swiss Watching ist nicht auf Deutsch, sondern auf Englisch.

Exercises:

1. In dieser Klasse lernen Sie kein Spanisch, _________ Deutsch!
2. Zürich ist eine schöne Stadt, _________ sie ist sehr teuer.
3. Der Wein ist nicht nur Bio, _________ auch Biodynamisch.
4. Ich trinke gerne Bier, _________ Wein trinke ich lieber.
5. Die Prüfung ist nicht schwierig, _________ lang.
6. Fahren Sie nicht mit dem Auto, _________ mit dem Rad.
7. Der Sattel ist nicht aus Plastik, _________ aus Leder.
8. Die Kirche ist nicht sehr groß, _________ sie ist sehr schön.
9. Der Käse kommt nicht aus der Schweiz, _________ aus England.
10. Das Rad ist toll, _________ der Rahmen ist zu klein.
11. Das Restaurant ist gemütlich, _________ es ist sehr teuer.

A big thank you to Diccon Bewes for suggesting this week’s topic. Check out his fabulous blog on the Swiss at: http://swisswatching.wordpress.com/

Answers:

sondern, aber, sondern, aber, sondern, sondern, sondern, aber, sondern, aber, aber

            and    as          well as      yet               

            but     for           nor          or

   Coordinate Conjunctions สามารถใช้ในรูปแบบต่อไปนี้

  1.1 เชื่อมคำกับคำ เช่น

 colleges and universities      quickly and beautifully

 pretty and intelligent           fish and chips

  1.2 เชื่อมวลีกับวลี เช่น

Going to a dance or to a movie

1.3 เชื่อมประโยคกับประโยค เช่น

Her parents decided to postpone their trip to Los Angeles, for the weather was threatening.

The day is finally over and I am ready for bed.

Notice anything wrong with it?  Here we have two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction.  Ah, you’re telling me that the problem is a proliferation of grammatical terms.  Let’s dispose of coordinating conjunctions first.  The list is simple:  and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet.  There, that was easy, just those seven words.  Now what do they do?

Join sentences, that’s what.  “The day is finally over,” could stand by itself, as could “I am ready for bed.”  An independent clause is something that could be a sentence if it were by itself.  In the first clause, “day” is the noun whose condition is asserted by “is.”  The same happens with “I” and “am” in the second clause.  Since in each case we have a subject and a verb that agree, there are two independent clauses joined by “and.”  This means that there must be a comma after “over.”

That sentence had state of being verbs.  Now let’s try some action:

The clock chimed, and I shook from fright.

What chimed?  The clock.  Who shook?  I did.  Again, we have subjects and verbs in agreement, so “The clock chimed” and “I shook from fright” are independent clauses.  They could each stand alone.  That’s the reason for the comma after “chimed.”

Now if you recall the previous lesson on semicolons, you’ll realize that the sentence could have been written, “The clock chimed; I shook from fright.”  I prefer it with the comma and conjunction, though.  The second half is the result of the first, not just a coincidental event.

How about this one?

The dog ran over and barked.

Notice that there’s no comma before “and” in that sentence.  Why not?  “Dog” is the subject of both “ran” and “barked,” so no comma goes in between.  Do not separate subjects from their verbs, except in cases like this:

The dog ran over, crossing a rushing stream, and barked.

In that case, “crossing a rushing stream” could be left out of the sentence, so it’s separated off by commas before and after it.

Everything make sense now?  Try this, if you’re ready:

Go to sleep and dream of me.

That one is also wrong.  The rule is that two independent clauses joined by a conjunction must have a comma in between.  “Go to sleep” and “dream of me” are just such clauses.  The verbs, “go” and “dream,” do have subjects, even though they aren’t stated.  The implied subject is “you.”

Perhaps that’s enough for now, as I don’t want to make my readers, um, dare I write it, commatose.

But not to fear, for I will explain its meaning in 5-4-3-2-1 BAMMMMM!

Today’s post is all about the comma splice. For those of you who are currently residing in the U.K., stop laughing because it’s an actual law of grammar on our continent.

What is a comma splice? There are two different types of clauses – the independent or the dependent. Sometimes the dependent clause can be called the “subbordinate” clause, just giving you a head’s up on that one. Sometimes when writers are expressing thoughts or opinions in a “stream of conciousness” style of prose, they use two or more independent clauses in the same sentence without a coordinating conjunction. This is BAD. Often they will use commas to separate their ideas; however, this is still a problem because they are still independent phrases whether you like it or not. Hence we get the name “comma splice.”

The two quickest ways to fix a comma splice are as follows:

1) Separate the independent clauses into different sentences… BORING!

2) Use a correlative conjunction or “coordinating conjunction” between each independent phrase.

To make life easier, here are the correlative conjunctions in no particular order…

• AND
• FOR
• NOR
• BUT
• SO
• YET
• OR

Where does the video game part come in? For those of you who play the game Bioshock, you probably get the joke now… If not, remember? Splicers… Comma splice… No? Was my joke really that much of a failure? Probably.

Sigh.

And just for “kicks” I will add a new feature… THE WORD OF THE DAY! Yes, we here at prose people are just that awesome. And by we, I mean me.

WORD OF THE DAY:

Quintessential: (kwin TUH sen shul) being the most perfect or typical example of something.

Used in a sentence: Miss America is promoted as the quintessential American woman.

There are three methods of correction.

METHOD 1: Connect two independent clauses with a comma plus one of these coordinating conjunctions: and, but, for, or, nor, yet, so.

eg.   faulty: Students write papers, professors correct them.

revised: Students write papers, and professors correct them.

faulty: The men cooked dinner, the women mixed the drinks.

revised: The men cooked dinner, so the women mixed the drinks.

EXERCISE:

Change each of the following into a complete and correct sentence by placing a comma plus a conjunction where necessary.

1. It was my mom’s birthday, I called her on the phone.

2. Going out to dinner is fun it is expensive.

3. She is my roommate we split all the bills.

4. We found some shells on the beach they were beautiful.

5. I’m not sure I understand it completely I like it.

METHOD 2: Separate two independent clauses with a semicolon or a period.

eg.   faulty: Students write papers, professors correct them.

revised: Students write papers; professors correct them.

faulty: The men cooked dinner, the women mixed the drinks.

revised: The men cooked dinner. The women mixed the drinks.

In addition, connecting words such as however, therefore, consequently, nevertheless, likewise, besides, also, then, furthermore should be used after the semicolon or period–but not a comma. Because these are strong words, they should be followed by a comma. The word then is an exception; it does not generally take a comma.

eg.   – Students write papers; then professors correct them.

- The men cooked dinner; therefore, the women mixed the drinks.

- The train stops here. However, it is always late.

- I hope the Maple Leafs win the Stanley Cup. Nevertheless,they have a way to go yet.

EXERCISE:

Correct each of the following by placing a semicolon or period between the independent clauses. Add commas where they are needed.

1. I received the most votes therefore I was elected.

2. I want to visit him however I am not feeling well.

3. The play was a comedy, it was very funny.

4. You want your freedom nevertheless you will have to get a

job.

5. She must be out of town otherwise she would be here.

6. First we eat dinner, then we have dessert.

METHOD 3. Change one of the independent clauses into a dependent clause.

This can be done using one of the CONDITIONAL WORDS we discussed earlier.

** Remember, when a dependent clause comes at the beginning of a sentence, it is followed by a comma.

eg.   faulty: Students write papers, professors correct them.

revised: When students write papers, professors correct them.

faulty: The train stops here, it is always late.

revised: The train stops here although it is always late.

EXERCISE

Each of the following contains two independent clauses. Correct the sentence by making one of them into a dependent clause.

1. We went to the museum, Bob went to the ball game.

2. You are my sister I love you.

3. I don’t like crowds, I enjoy going to the beach.

4. The temperature dropped it started to rain.

5. I get my change, I look for a penny.

6. You were gone the plumber came.