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	<title>endoderm &amp;laquo; WordPress.com Tag Feed</title>
	<link>http://en.wordpress.com/tag/endoderm/</link>
	<description>Feed of posts on WordPress.com tagged "endoderm"</description>
	<pubDate>Sat, 26 Dec 2009 18:20:02 +0000</pubDate>

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<item>
<title><![CDATA[KONSEPSI DAN PERKEMBANGAN JANIN DI DALAM RAHIM]]></title>
<link>http://kamussehat.wordpress.com/2009/10/20/konsepsi-dan-perkembangan-janin-di-dalam-rahim/</link>
<pubDate>Tue, 20 Oct 2009 05:50:21 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>kamussehat</dc:creator>
<guid>http://kamussehat.wordpress.com/2009/10/20/konsepsi-dan-perkembangan-janin-di-dalam-rahim/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Konsepsi adalah hasil proses pembuahan sel sperma pada telur yang kita kenal dengan istilah fertilis]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><h1><span style="font-weight:normal;font-size:13px;">Konsepsi adalah hasil proses pembuahan sel sperma pada telur yang kita kenal dengan istilah fertilisasi. Periode ini adalah awal terjadinya kehamilan pada seorang wanita. Sang calon ibu mungkin tidak menyadari proses ini terjadi dalam tubuhnya, karena tidak ada perubahan atau  gangguan yang dirasakan ibu. Akan tetapi, periode ini sampai trimester pertama (tiga pertama) adalah masa yang sangat penting dan kritis bagi perkembangan janin, karena merupakan masa pembentukan awal yang sangat memengaruhi pertumbuhan dan kehidupan janin selanjutnya sampai lahir.</span></h1>
<p>Pranatal atau perkembangan di dalam rahim berlangsung sekitar 9 bulan hitungan kalender matahari (10 bulan kalender bulan) atau 38–40 minggu, bergantung metode penghitungan yang digunakan. (Hitungan kalender bulan adalah 28 hari). Jika dihitung dari hari terjadinya konsepsi, tahapan kehidupan ini berlangsung selama 38 minggu atau 9½ bulan kalender bulan. Jika dihitung dari hari pertama haid terakhir, rata-rata lama masa pranatal adalah 10 bulan kalender bulan atau 40 minggu.</p>
<p>Biasanya, masa kehamilan dibagi ke dalam 3 periode yang disebut <strong>trimester, </strong>masing-masing trimester berlangsung selama 3 bulan. Setiap trimester memiliki tanda-tanda tertentu yang menandai perubahan perkembangan pada ibu dan janin. Dua fase perkembangan dalam rahim juga berdasarkan penghitungan trimester.<strong>. Fase embrionik </strong>di trimester pertama dan<strong> fase janin </strong>trimester kedua dan ketiga<strong>. </strong></p>
<p><strong>Fase embrionik </strong>merupakan periode perkembangan ovum yang telah dibuahi menjadi organisme yang memiliki sebagian besar bentuk manusia. Periode ini meliputi 8 minggu usia kehamilan.</p>
<p>Dalam 3 minggu pertama kehidupan, jaringan embrio berdiferensiasi menjadi 3 lapisan—<strong>ektoderm </strong>(lapisan luar), <strong>mesoderm </strong>(lapisan tengah), dan <strong>endoderm </strong>atau <strong>entoderm </strong>(lapisan dalam). Ektoderm dan endoderm terbentuk pada minggu ke-2; mesoderm terbentuk pada minggu ke-3. Dari permulaan minggu ke-3 hingga minggu ke-8 setelah konsepsi, ketiga lapisan tersebut membentuk struktur dasar seluruh sistem dan organ kompleks tubuh. Sebagai contoh, lapisan ektoderm membentuk otak dan tulang belakang, mesoderm membentuk jantung, dan endoderm membentuk kandung kemih dan uretra (Pillitteri, 2003).</p>
<p>Tiga peristiwa lain yang terjadi selama tiga minggu pertama kehamilan:</p>
<ol>
<li>Embrio tertanam di endometrium uterus.</li>
<li>Membran janin berdiferensiasi menjadi korion, bakal plasenta dan      amnion, serta bakal kantung amnion.</li>
<li>Plasenta mulai berfungsi. <strong>Plasenta </strong>merupakan organ datar      berbentuk pipih dan memiliki banyak sistem sirkulasi darah. Normalnya,      plasenta terbentuk di segmen atas endometrium uterus (lapisan dalam      rahim). Fungsinya untuk pertukaran nutrisi dan gas antara embrio atau      janin dan ibu.</li>
</ol>
<p>Perkembangan <strong>fase janin </strong>dikarakteristikkan dengan periode pertumbuhan ukuran janin yang cepat. Faktor genetik dan lingkungan memengaruhi pertumbuhan janin.</p>
<p>Pada akhir trimester ke-2, atau usia 6 bulan menurut kalender bulan, bentuk janin menyerupai bayi yang kecil. Lemak yang terdapat di bawah kulit sangat sedikit sehingga kulit tampak berkerut, merah, dan transparan. Pembuluh darah yang terdapat di bawahnya terlihat jelas. Lapisan pelindung, yang disebut <strong>verniks kaseosa, </strong>mulai terbentuk pada kulit. Substansinya menyerupai keju dan berwarna putih, yang menempel pada kulit dan tebalnya sampai seperdelapan cm saat lahir. <strong>Lanugo, </strong>yaitu rambut-rambut halus, juga menutupi tubuh. Pada usia kehamilan sekitar 5 bulan, ibu pertama kali merasakan gerakan janin (<em>quickening</em>), dan denyut jantung janin dapat didengar.</p>
<p>Pada akhir trimester ke-3 (9½ bulan menurut kalender bulan), janin telah berkembang kurang lebih mencapai pajang badan 50 cm dan berat janin 3,2–3,4 kg. Lanugo menghilang, dan warna kulit lebih normal dan kerutan pada kulit berkurang. Lemak subkutan yang bertambah membuat bayi tampak lebih montok; masa dua bulan terakhir di dalam rahim sebagian besar bertujuan untuk meningkatkan berat badan janin. Kotak 22–1 berisi daftar faktor-faktor maternal yang dapat menyebabkan risiko bayi BBLR (berat badan lahir rendah) lebih tinggi.</p>
<p><strong>Perubahan yang Terjadi pada Ibu</strong></p>
<p>Selama tahap perkembangan di dalam rahim, embrio atau janin bergantung pada aliran darah ibu melalui plasenta untuk memenuhi kebutuhan dasarnya guna bertahan hidup. Kesehatan ibu sangat penting untuk mencapai pertumbuhan dan perkembangan janin yang sesuai masa kehamilan.</p>
<p>Beberapa faktor pada ibu yang meningkatkan risiko BBLR</p>
<p><strong> </strong></p>
<p>Berat badan sebelum kehamilan rendah (di bawah normal)</p>
<p>Pertambahan berat badan selama kehamilan kurang dari 10,5 kg</p>
<p>Perawatan pranatal yang kurang</p>
<p>Berusia 16 tahun atau kurang atau 35 tahun atau lebih</p>
<p>Tingkat sosial ekonomi rendah</p>
<p>Nutrisi yang buruk selama kehamilan</p>
<p>Merokok selama kehamilan</p>
<p>Mengonsumsi obat-obatan terlarang atau alkohol selama kehamilan</p>
<p>Komplikasi selama kehamilan, status kesehatan yang buruk, terpajan infeksi</p>
<p>Tingkat stres yang tinggi, termasuk penganiayaan fisik dan emosi</p>
<p><em>Catatan: </em>Dari <em>Health Promotion Strategies Through the Life Span, </em>ed. 7. (hlm. 309), oleh R. B. Murray</p>
<p>dan J. P. Zentner, 2001. Dicetak ulang dengan izin.</p>
<p><strong>Oksigen</strong></p>
<p>Aliran darah ibu hamil mengalami peningkatan sebesar sepertiga aliran darah normal untuk memenuhi kebutuhan oksigen janin, dan mencapai puncaknya pada 8 bulan kehamilan; frekuensi pernapasan meningkat sekitar 40%, curah jantung meningkat secara bermakna. Pada awalnya, jantung embrio berada di bagian luar tubuh, tetapi organ tersebut masuk ke dalam dada pada awal trimester ke-2. Oleh sebab itu, apabila terjadi gangguan pada trimester ke-2 ini, bayi dapat mengalami kelainan letak jantung.</p>
<p>Sirkulasi janin mengalir dari plasenta melalui dua arteri umbilikus yang membawa darah yang miskin oksigen keluar dari janin. Setelah 20 minggu kehamilan, denyut jantung janin dapat didengar melalui fetoskop (alat khusus untuk mendengar detak jantung janin); pada usia 10 bulan, denyut jantung dapat didengar dengan menggunakan stetoskop Doppler ultrasonografi.</p>
<p><strong>Nutrisi dan Cairan</strong></p>
<p>Janin memperoleh makanan dari sirkulasi plasenta dan dengan menelan cairan amnion. Kebutuhan nutrisi terpenuhi pada ibu yang melakukan diet seimbang dengan kandungan kalori yang cukup untuk memenuhi kebutuhan ibu dan janinnya.</p>
<p>Asam folat, salah satu jenis vitamin B, dalam jumlah yang cukup penting untuk mencegah defek tuba neural atau NTD [<em>neural tube defect</em>]<em> </em>(contohnya, spina bifida) pada janin. Salah satu tujuan Healthy People 2010 adalah untuk meningkatkan proporsi kehamilan yang dimulai dengan pemenuhan kadar asam folat optimum (USDHHS, 2000). Defek tuba neural terjadi pada minggu-minggu pertama perkembangan janin. Oleh sebab itu, wanita yang berkemungkinan hamil dianjurkan mengonsumsi 400 mikrogram asam folat per hari. Wanita juga dianjurkan mengonsumsi makanan yang banyak mengandung folat (seperti sayuran hijau, jeruk, kacang polong kering) dan suplemen vitamin yang mengandung asam folat.</p>
<p><strong>Istirahat dan Aktivitas</strong></p>
<p>Janin tidur hampir sepanjang waktu tetapi tetap membentuk pola tidur-bangun yang dapat terus berlanjut setelah lahir. Aktivitas janin dapat dirasakan oleh ibu antara bulan keempat dan kelima kehamilan.</p>
<p><strong>Pengeluaran Feses dan Kemih </strong></p>
<p>Feses janin yang dibentuk di usus berasal dari cairan amnion yang tertelan selama di dalam rahim, tetapi normalnya tidak dikeluarkan hingga setelah kelahiran. Oksigenasi janin yang tidak adekuat selama trimester ke-3 dapat menyebabkan relaksasi sfingter anus dan keluarnya feses ke dalam cairan amnion. Normalnya, urine dikeluarkan ke dalam cairan amnion pada saat ginjal matur (16–20 minggu).</p>
<h2>Pengaturan Suhu</h2>
<p>Cairan amnion yang mengelilingi janin dapat menciptakan lingkungan dengan suhu yang konstan. Perubahan yang bermakna pada suhu tubuh ibu dapat mengubah suhu cairan amnion dan janin. Suhu tubuh yang meningkat secara bermakna akibat penyakit, berendam di air panas, atau sauna dapat menyebabkan bayi cacat lahir.</p>
<p><strong>Keselamatan</strong></p>
<p>Sistem tubuh terbentuk selama periode embrionik. Hal ini menyebabkan embrio sangat rentan mengalami kerusakan oleh zat-zat yang bersifat <strong>teratogen, </strong>yaitu zat-zat yang dapat membahayakan perkembangan sel-sel normal pada embrio atau janin (Venes, 2001).<strong> </strong>Pengetahuan adanya kemungkinan kehamilan sangat penting pada pemberian obat-obatan yang bersifat teratogen untuk menghindari efek yang merusak pada janin. Selain itu, wanita harus menghindari pemeriksaan radiografi (sinar-x).</p>
<p>Kebiasaan merokok dan mengonsumsi alkohol dapat mempengaruhi lingkungan janin. Menurut para ahli merokok selama kehamilan dianggap sebagai penyebab berat badan lahir rendah atau BBLR dan juga dikaitkan dengan bayi lahir mati, sindrom kematian bayi mendadak (<em>sudden infant death syndrome</em> [SIDS]), palatum sumbing (sumbing di bagian langit-langit mulut), dan bibir sumbing. Curet dan Hsi (2002) melaporkan bahwa “pajanan alkohol selama periode kehamilan meningkatkan risiko berat badan lahir rendah, abnormalitas perkembangan dan perilaku, aborsi spontan, dan bayi lahir mati</p>
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<item>
<title><![CDATA[Germ layers]]></title>
<link>http://bedzhov.wordpress.com/2009/06/30/germ-layer/</link>
<pubDate>Tue, 30 Jun 2009 10:57:08 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>Ivan Bedzhov</dc:creator>
<guid>http://bedzhov.wordpress.com/2009/06/30/germ-layer/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Organs derived from each germ laye]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><h3>From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</h3>
<div id="jump-to-nav">Jump to: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_layer#column-one">navigation</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_layer#searchInput">search</a></div>
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<div style="width:302px;"><a title="Organs derived from each germ layer. Image from NCBI." href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cell_differentiation.gif"><img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d4/Cell_differentiation.gif" alt="" width="300" height="282" /></a></p>
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<div><a title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Cell_differentiation.gif"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11" /></a></div>
<p>Organs derived from each germ layer. Image from <a title="http://www.ncbi.nih.gov/About/primer/genetics_cell.html" rel="nofollow" href="http://www.ncbi.nih.gov/About/primer/genetics_cell.html">NCBI</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<p>A <strong>germ layer</strong> is a group of <a title="Cell (biology)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_%28biology%29">cells</a>, formed during animal <a title="Embryogenesis" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryogenesis">embryogenesis</a>. Germ layers are particularly pronounced in the <a title="Vertebrate" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>; however, all <a title="Animal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal">animals</a> more complex than <a title="Sea sponge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_sponge">sponges</a> (<a title="Eumetazoa" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eumetazoa">eumetazoans</a> and <a title="wikispecies:agnotozoa" href="http://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/agnotozoa">agnotozoans</a>) produce two or three <strong>primary tissue layers</strong> (sometimes called primary germ layers). Animals with <a title="Symmetry (biology)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_%28biology%29#Radial_symmetry">radial symmetry</a>, like <a title="Cnidaria" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria">cnidarians</a>, produce two germ layers (the <a title="Ectoderm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ectoderm">ectoderm</a> and <a title="Endoderm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endoderm">endoderm</a>) making them <a title="Diploblastic" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diploblastic">diploblastic</a>. Animals with <a title="Symmetry (biology)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetry_%28biology%29#Bilateral_symmetry">bilateral symmetry</a> produce a third layer between these two layers (appropriately called the <a title="Mesoderm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoderm">mesoderm</a>) making them <a title="Triploblastic" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triploblastic">triploblastic</a>. Germ layers eventually give rise to all of an animal’s <a title="Biological tissue" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_tissue">tissues</a> and <a title="Organ (anatomy)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organ_%28anatomy%29">organs</a> through the process of <a title="Organogenesis" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organogenesis">organogenesis</a>.</p>
<table id="toc" border="0" summary="Contents">
<tbody>
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<td>
<div id="toctitle">
<h2>Contents</h2>
<p><span>[<a id="togglelink" href="toggleToc()">hide</a>]</span></div>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_layer#Germ_layers"><span>1</span> <span>Germ layers</span></a>
<ul>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_layer#Development"><span>1.1</span> <span>Development</span></a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_layer#Endoderm"><span>1.2</span> <span>Endoderm</span></a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_layer#Mesoderm"><span>1.3</span> <span>Mesoderm</span></a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_layer#Ectoderm"><span>1.4</span> <span>Ectoderm</span></a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_layer#Neural_crest"><span>1.5</span> <span>Neural crest</span></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_layer#References"><span>2</span> <span>References</span></a></li>
<li><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germ_layer#See_also"><span>3</span> <span>See also</span></a></li>
</ul>
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<p>//</p>
<p><a id="Germ_layers" name="Germ_layers"></a></p>
<h2><span>[<a title="Edit section: Germ layers" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Germ_layer&#38;action=edit&#38;section=1">edit</a>]</span> <span>Germ layers</span></h2>
<div>
<div style="width:302px;"><a title="Gastrulation of a diploblast: The formation of germ layers from a (1) blastula to a (2) gastrula. Some of the ectoderm cells (orange) move inward forming the endoderm (red)." href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gastrulation.png"><img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Gastrulation.png/300px-Gastrulation.png" alt="" width="300" height="182" /></a></p>
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<div><a title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gastrulation.png"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11" /></a></div>
<p><strong>Gastrulation of a diploblast:</strong> The formation of germ layers from a (1) blastula to a (2) gastrula. Some of the ectoderm cells (orange) move inward forming the endoderm (red).</div>
</div>
</div>
<p><a title="Caspar Friedrich Wolff" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caspar_Friedrich_Wolff">Caspar Friedrich Wolff</a> observed organization of the early embryo in leaf-like layers. Later, <a title="Heinz Christian Pander" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinz_Christian_Pander">Heinz Christian Pander</a> discovered germ layers while studying chick embryos.</p>
<p>Among <a title="Animal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal">animals</a>, <a title="Sea sponge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_sponge">sponges</a> show the simplest organization, having a single germ layer. Although they have differentiated cells (e.g. <a title="Choanocyte" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Choanocyte">collar cells</a>), they lack true tissue coordination. <a title="Diploblastic" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diploblastic">Diploblastic</a> animals, <a title="Cnidaria" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a> and <a title="Ctenophores" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ctenophores">ctenophores</a>, show an increase in complexity, having two germ layers, the <a title="Endoderm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endoderm">endoderm</a> and <a title="Ectoderm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ectoderm">ectoderm</a>. Diploblastic animals are organized into recognisable tissues. All higher animals (from flatworms to humans) are <a title="Triploblastic" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triploblastic">triploblastic</a>, possessing a <a title="Mesoderm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoderm">mesoderm</a> in additition to the germ layers found in Diploblasts. Triploblastic animals develop recognisable organs.</p>
<p><a id="Development" name="Development"></a></p>
<h3><span>[<a title="Edit section: Development" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Germ_layer&#38;action=edit&#38;section=2">edit</a>]</span> <span>Development</span></h3>
<p><a title="Fertilisation" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fertilisation">Fertilization</a> leads to the formation of a <a title="Zygote" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zygote">zygote</a>. During the next stage, <a title="Cleavage (embryo)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleavage_%28embryo%29">cleavage</a>, <a title="Mitosis" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitosis">mitotic</a> cell divisions transform the zygote into a tiny ball of cells, a <a title="Blastula" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blastula">blastula</a>. This early embryonic form undergoes <a title="Gastrulation" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrulation">gastrulation</a>, forming a <a title="Gastrula" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrula">gastrula</a> with either two or three layers (the germ layers). In all <a title="Vertebrate" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>, these are the forerunners of all adult tissues and organs.</p>
<p>The appearance of the <a title="Archenteron" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archenteron">archenteron</a> marks the onset of gastrulation.</p>
<p>In humans, after about three days, the zygote forms a solid mass of cells by mitotic division, called a <a title="Morula" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morula">morula</a>. This then changes to a <a title="Blastocyst" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blastocyst">blastocyst</a>, consisting of an outer layer called a <a title="Trophoblast" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophoblast">trophoblast</a>, and an inner cell mass called the <a title="Embryoblast" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryoblast">embryoblast</a>. Filled with uterine fluid, the blastocyst breaks out of the zona pellucida and undergoes <a title="Implantation" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implantation">implantation</a>. The inner cell mass initially has two layers: the hypoblast and epiblast. At the end of the second week, a <a title="Primitive streak" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primitive_streak">primitive streak</a> appears. The epiblast in this region moves towards the primitive streak, dives down into it, and forms a new layer, called the <a title="Endoderm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endoderm">endoderm</a>, pushing the hypoblast out of the way (this goes on to form the <a title="Amnion" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amnion">amnion</a>.) The epiblast keeps moving and forms a second layer, the <a title="Mesoderm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoderm">mesoderm</a>. The top layer is now called the <a title="Ectoderm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ectoderm">ectoderm</a>.</p>
<p><a id="Endoderm" name="Endoderm"></a></p>
<h3><span>[<a title="Edit section: Endoderm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Germ_layer&#38;action=edit&#38;section=3">edit</a>]</span> <span>Endoderm</span></h3>
<div>
<div style="width:202px;"><a title="The endoderm produces tissue within the lungs, thyroid, and pancreas." href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Endoderm2.png"><img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Endoderm2.png/200px-Endoderm2.png" alt="" width="200" height="147" /></a></p>
<div>
<div><a title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Endoderm2.png"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11" /></a></div>
<p>The <a title="Endoderm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endoderm">endoderm</a> produces tissue within the <a title="Lung" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lung">lungs</a>, <a title="Thyroid" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thyroid">thyroid</a>, and <a title="Pancreas" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancreas">pancreas</a>.</div>
</div>
</div>
<div>Main article: <a title="Endoderm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endoderm">Endoderm</a></div>
<p>The <strong>endoderm</strong> is one of the germ layers formed during animal embryogenesis. Cells migrating inward along the archenteron form the inner layer of the gastrula, which develops into the <a title="Endoderm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endoderm">endoderm</a>.</p>
<p>The endoderm consists at first of flattened cells, which subsequently become columnar. It forms the epithelial lining of the whole of the digestive tube excepting part of the mouth and pharynx and the terminal part of the rectum (which are lined by involutions of the ectoderm). It also forms the lining cells of all the glands which open into the digestive tube, including those of the liver and pancreas; the epithelium of the auditory tube and tympanic cavity; the trachea, bronchi, and air cells of the lungs; the urinary bladder and part of the urethra; and the follicle lining of the thyroid gland and thymus.</p>
<p>The <a title="Endoderm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endoderm">endoderm</a> forms: the stomach, the colon, the liver, the pancreas, the urinary bladder, the lining of the urethra, the epithelial parts of trachea, the <a title="Lungs" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lungs">lungs</a>, the pharynx, the thyroid, the parathyroid, and the intestines.</p>
<p><a id="Mesoderm" name="Mesoderm"></a></p>
<h3><span>[<a title="Edit section: Mesoderm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Germ_layer&#38;action=edit&#38;section=4">edit</a>]</span> <span>Mesoderm</span></h3>
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<div style="width:277px;"><a title="The mesoderm aids in the production of cardiac muscle, skeletal muscle, smooth muscle, tissues within the kidneys, and red blood cells." href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mesoderm.png"><img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Mesoderm.png/275px-Mesoderm.png" alt="" width="275" height="130" /></a></p>
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<p>The <a title="Mesoderm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoderm">mesoderm</a> aids in the production of <a title="Cardiac muscle" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiac_muscle">cardiac muscle</a>, <a title="Skeletal muscle" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeletal_muscle">skeletal muscle</a>, <a title="Smooth muscle" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smooth_muscle">smooth muscle</a>, tissues within the <a title="Kidney" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kidney">kidneys</a>, and <a title="Red blood cell" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_blood_cell">red blood cells</a>.</div>
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<div>Main article: <a title="Mesoderm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoderm">Mesoderm</a></div>
<p>The <strong>mesoderm</strong> germ layer forms in the <a title="Embryo" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryo">embryos</a> of <a title="Triploblastic" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triploblastic">triploblastic</a> <a title="Animal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal">animals</a>. During <a title="Gastrulation" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gastrulation">gastrulation</a>, some of the cells migrating inward contribute to the <a title="Mesoderm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoderm">mesoderm</a>, an additional layer between the endoderm and the <a title="Ectoderm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ectoderm">ectoderm</a>.</p>
<p>This key innovation evolved hundreds of millions of years ago and led to the evolution of nearly all large, complex animals. The formation of a mesoderm led to the development of a <a title="Body cavity" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_cavity">coelom</a>. Organs formed inside a coelom can freely move, grow, and develop independently of the body wall while fluid cushions and protects them from shocks.</p>
<p>The <a title="Mesoderm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoderm">mesoderm</a> forms: skeletal muscle, the skeleton, the dermis of skin, connective tissue, the urogenital system, the <a title="Heart" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart">heart</a>, blood (<a title="Lymph" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymph">lymph</a> cells), and the spleen.</p>
<p><a id="Ectoderm" name="Ectoderm"></a></p>
<h3><span>[<a title="Edit section: Ectoderm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Germ_layer&#38;action=edit&#38;section=5">edit</a>]</span> <span>Ectoderm</span></h3>
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<div style="width:252px;"><a title="The ectoderm produces tissues within the epidermis, aids in the formation of neurons within the brain, and constructs melanocytes." href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ectoderm.png"><img src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Ectoderm.png/250px-Ectoderm.png" alt="" width="250" height="161" /></a></p>
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<div><a title="Enlarge" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ectoderm.png"><img src="http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png" alt="" width="15" height="11" /></a></div>
<p>The <a title="Ectoderm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ectoderm">ectoderm</a> produces tissues within the <a title="Epidermis (skin)" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidermis_%28skin%29">epidermis</a>, aids in the formation of <a title="Neuron" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron">neurons</a> within the brain, and constructs <a title="Melanocytes" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanocytes">melanocytes</a>.</div>
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<div>Main article: <a title="Ectoderm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ectoderm">Ectoderm</a></div>
<p>The <strong>ectoderm</strong> is the start of a tissue that covers the body surfaces. It emerges first and forms from the outermost of the germ layers.</p>
<p>The <a title="Ectoderm" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ectoderm">ectoderm</a> forms: the central nervous system, the lens of the eye, cranial and sensory, the ganglia and nerves, pigment cells, head connective tissues, the epidermis, hair, and mammary glands.</p>
<p><a id="Neural_crest" name="Neural_crest"></a></p>
<h3><span>[<a title="Edit section: Neural crest" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Germ_layer&#38;action=edit&#38;section=6">edit</a>]</span> <span>Neural crest</span></h3>
<p>Because of its great importance, the <a title="Neural crest" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural_crest">neural crest</a> is sometimes considered a fourth germ layer. It is, however, derived from the ectoderm.</p>
<p><a id="References" name="References"></a></p>
<h2><span>[<a title="Edit section: References" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Germ_layer&#38;action=edit&#38;section=7">edit</a>]</span> <span>References</span></h2>
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<li>Evers, Christine A., Lisa Starr. <em>Biology:Concepts and Applications.</em> 6th ed. United States:Thomson, 2006. <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0534462243">ISBN 0-534-46224-3</a>.</li>
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<p><a id="See_also" name="See_also"></a></p>
<h2><span>[<a title="Edit section: See also" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Germ_layer&#38;action=edit&#38;section=8">edit</a>]</span> <span>See also</span></h2>
<ul>
<li><a title="Cellular differentiation" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellular_differentiation">Cellular differentiation</a></li>
<li><a title="Embryogenesis" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryogenesis">Embryogenesis</a></li>
<li><a title="Histogenesis" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histogenesis">Histogenesis</a></li>
<li><a title="Neurulation" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurulation">Neurulation</a></li>
<li><a title="Organogenesis" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organogenesis">Organogenesis</a></li>
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<title><![CDATA[Short video - Stem Cell Primer ]]></title>
<link>http://biotheorist.wordpress.com/2009/06/07/short-video-stem-cell-primer/</link>
<pubDate>Sun, 07 Jun 2009 15:32:41 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>Dr. Anthony Payne</dc:creator>
<guid>http://biotheorist.wordpress.com/2009/06/07/short-video-stem-cell-primer/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Click this link and access a very brief video on stem cells &#8212; what they are, where they come f]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[Click this link and access a very brief video on stem cells &#8212; what they are, where they come f]]></content:encoded>
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<title><![CDATA[Geron Bolsters Extensive Embryonic Stem Cell Patent Estate]]></title>
<link>http://regeneration-station.com/2008/02/07/geron-bolsters-extensive-embryonic-stem-cell-patent-estate/</link>
<pubDate>Thu, 07 Feb 2008 13:48:07 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>jrowley</dc:creator>
<guid>http://regeneration-station.com/2008/02/07/geron-bolsters-extensive-embryonic-stem-cell-patent-estate/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Geron yesterday announced the issuance of US patent #7,326,572, helping to extend their patent prote]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[Geron yesterday announced the issuance of US patent #7,326,572, helping to extend their patent prote]]></content:encoded>
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<title><![CDATA[Stem Cells]]></title>
<link>http://wleighmoore.wordpress.com/2008/01/13/stem-cells/</link>
<pubDate>Sun, 13 Jan 2008 20:15:31 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>WLM</dc:creator>
<guid>http://wleighmoore.wordpress.com/2008/01/13/stem-cells/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Stem cells have been in the news quite a bit lately.  However, there is a lot of confusion or misund]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>Stem cells have been in the news quite a bit lately.  However, there is a lot of confusion or misunderstanding about what stem cells actually are.  I have noticed that in many news stories, both in print and on tv, a basic explanation of stem cells is missing.  So, I am going to go over in very simple language what a stem cell is, what it does and why they are so important.  Most of this information comes from various classes I have taken, but there will be some additional resources at the bottom. </p>
<p>First, there are actually different types of stem cells.  When you are discussing stem cells, it may not matter what actual types you are talking about, but the fact that there is not just one type of stem cell is significant.   All animals basically start off the same way.   Cells begin to divide once conception takes place.  This mass of cells are stem cells!  They are referred to as <strong>totipotent</strong> stem cells because they can become anything, anything at all.  Any organ or tissue can be made from these cells. </p>
<p>At a certain point, enough cells are gathered together and a process known as gastrulation occurs.  What gastrulation does, is take the inital lump of cells and divides them into three separate and different layers of cells.  These three layers become everything in the body.  They are known as ectoderm (the outer layer),  mesoderm (middle layer) and endoderm (inner layer).  Think of an oreo cookie.  The top cookie is ectoderm, the yummy middle is mesoderm and the bottom cookie is endoderm.  These three layers are called germ layers and are also stem cells.  These are known as <strong>pluripotent</strong> stem cells because they can differentiate (or become) into body parts depending on which layer they originated.   Ectoderm makes things like skin and the nervous system.  Mesoderm makes things like muscles and bones and a couple of organs.  Endoderm results in most of the organs of the body and the deep skin known as the dermis.  So, for example, mesoderm cells have the potential to become heart cells or kidney cells.  Cool, huh?</p>
<p> Once these germ layers are in place, they begin to become more specialized and form the ancestors of the actual tissues in the body.  For example, some of the mesoderm becomes mesenchyme which then becomes connective tissues like tendons or bones (yes, bones are connective tissues,  so is blood for that matter).  Mesenchyme is also considered a stem cell, but instead of being able to form anything that mesoderm is capable of, it can only become one of the various types of connective tissue.  These type of cells are known as <strong>multipotent</strong> stem cells because they can become multiple tissues within a specific tissue category like connective.  With me so far?</p>
<p>So, to recap and bottom line it:</p>
<p>1. Conception= totipotent stem cells (can become anything!)</p>
<p>2. Gastrulation-ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm= pluripotent stem cells (can form only the body parts from each germ layer. Example: mesoderm can form muscles OR kidney cells).</p>
<p>3. More differentition= Multipotent stem cells (can form only what the differentiated cell can form like mesenchyme can form connective tissue but not muscle).</p>
<p>So that is it for a basic understanding of stem cells.  In my next blog post, I will discuss how stem cells are made with embryonic and adult cells. </p>
<p>More information on stem cells here:<br />
<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stem_cells">Wikipedia Stem Cells</a><br />
<a href="http://stemcells.nih.gov/info/basics/basics3.asp">Stem Cells from the National Institute of Health</a><br />
<a href="http://www.med.unc.edu/embryo_images/unit-bdyfm/bdyfm_htms/bdyfm001.htm">Pictures of gastrulation from Med.unc.edu</a></p>
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