<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?><!-- generator="wordpress.com" -->
<rss version="2.0"
	xmlns:content="http://purl.org/rss/1.0/modules/content/"
	xmlns:wfw="http://wellformedweb.org/CommentAPI/"
	xmlns:dc="http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/"
	>

<channel>
	<title>hkale &amp;laquo; WordPress.com Tag Feed</title>
	<link>http://en.wordpress.com/tag/hkale/</link>
	<description>Feed of posts on WordPress.com tagged "hkale"</description>
	<pubDate>Mon, 28 Dec 2009 10:01:47 +0000</pubDate>

	<generator>http://en.wordpress.com/tags/</generator>
	<language>en</language>

<item>
<title><![CDATA[小心重覆數算]]></title>
<link>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/11/26/beware-of-double-counting/</link>
<pubDate>Thu, 26 Nov 2009 15:53:09 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>johnmayhk</dc:creator>
<guid>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/11/26/beware-of-double-counting/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[6 對夫婦，隨機選出 4 人，求僅有一對夫婦被選出的概率。 中六的 A 同學答：。 他解釋：P(僅有一對夫婦) = P(起碼一對夫婦) &#8211; P(兩對夫婦) 易知 P(兩對夫婦) = ，理由]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>6 對夫婦，隨機選出 4 人，求僅有一對夫婦被選出的概率。</p>
<p>中六的 A 同學答：<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7BC%5E6_1C%5E%7B10%7D_2%7D%7BC%5E%7B12%7D_4%7D+-+%5Cfrac%7BC%5E6_2%7D%7BC%5E%7B12%7D_4%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{C^6_1C^{10}_2}{C^{12}_4} - \frac{C^6_2}{C^{12}_4}' title='\frac{C^6_1C^{10}_2}{C^{12}_4} - \frac{C^6_2}{C^{12}_4}' class='latex' />。<!--more--></p>
<p>他解釋：P(僅有一對夫婦) = P(起碼一對夫婦) &#8211; P(兩對夫婦)</p>
<p>易知 P(兩對夫婦) = <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7BC%5E6_2%7D%7BC%5E%7B12%7D_4%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{C^6_2}{C^{12}_4}' title='\frac{C^6_2}{C^{12}_4}' class='latex' />，理由是兩對夫婦，就是從 6 對夫婦選出 2 對，共 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=C%5E6_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='C^6_2' title='C^6_2' class='latex' /> 種可能。</p>
<p>至於 P(起碼一對夫婦)，可這樣想：</p>
<p>先從 6 對夫婦選出 1 對，選法為 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=C%5E6_1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='C^6_1' title='C^6_1' class='latex' /> 種。餘下的 2 人，可從 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=12+-+2+%3D+10&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='12 - 2 = 10' title='12 - 2 = 10' class='latex' /> 人當中，隨意選取 2 個，選法共 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=C%5E%7B10%7D_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='C^{10}_2' title='C^{10}_2' class='latex' /> 種。故此，「存在起碼一對夫婦」的情況共 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=C%5E6_1C%5E%7B10%7D_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='C^6_1C^{10}_2' title='C^6_1C^{10}_2' class='latex' />。</p>
<p>因此，P(僅有一對夫婦) = <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7BC%5E6_1C%5E%7B10%7D_2%7D%7BC%5E%7B12%7D_4%7D+-+%5Cfrac%7BC%5E6_2%7D%7BC%5E%7B12%7D_4%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{C^6_1C^{10}_2}{C^{12}_4} - \frac{C^6_2}{C^{12}_4}' title='\frac{C^6_1C^{10}_2}{C^{12}_4} - \frac{C^6_2}{C^{12}_4}' class='latex' />。</p>
<p>同學，抱歉，上述的答案是錯誤的。停一停，想一想：錯在哪裡？</p>
<p>誠如<a href="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2008/04/10/applied-math-%e5%b0%8f%e8%ab%87%ef%bc%9a%e4%ba%92%e6%96%a5%e4%ba%8b%e4%bb%b6%e6%bf%9f%e6%bf%9f%e4%b8%80%e5%a0%82/" target="blank">之前寫過</a>，授課員向學生展示正確做法不難，如本例</p>
<p>P(起碼有一對夫婦) = 1 &#8211; P(沒有夫婦) = <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=1+-+%5Cfrac%7BC%5E6_4%282%5E4%29%7D%7BC%5E%7B12%7D_4%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='1 - \frac{C^6_4(2^4)}{C^{12}_4}' title='1 - \frac{C^6_4(2^4)}{C^{12}_4}' class='latex' /> &#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230; (*)</p>
<p>但要解釋為何學生的答案是錯，有時反而較難。</p>
<p>學生給的解釋，致命傷在於 P(起碼一對夫婦) 根本不是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7BC%5E6_1C%5E%7B10%7D_2%7D%7BC%5E%7B12%7D_4%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{C^6_1C^{10}_2}{C^{12}_4}' title='\frac{C^6_1C^{10}_2}{C^{12}_4}' class='latex' />；當中的 &#8220;<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=C%5E6_1C%5E%7B10%7D_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='C^6_1C^{10}_2' title='C^6_1C^{10}_2' class='latex' />&#8221; 包含了重覆數算，詳列如下：</p>
<p>設 6 對夫婦為</p>
<p>{<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_1+%2C+a_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_1 , a_2' title='a_1 , a_2' class='latex' />}, {<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=b_1+%2C+b_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='b_1 , b_2' title='b_1 , b_2' class='latex' />}, {<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=c_1+%2C+c_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='c_1 , c_2' title='c_1 , c_2' class='latex' />}, {<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=d_1+%2C+d_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='d_1 , d_2' title='d_1 , d_2' class='latex' />}, {<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=e_1+%2C+e_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='e_1 , e_2' title='e_1 , e_2' class='latex' />}, {<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f_1+%2C+f_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f_1 , f_2' title='f_1 , f_2' class='latex' />}</p>
<p>所謂 &#8220;<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=C%5E6_1C%5E%7B10%7D_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='C^6_1C^{10}_2' title='C^6_1C^{10}_2' class='latex' />&#8220;，其實是計算以下情況的總數：</p>
<p><a href="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/files/2009/11/20091126-352-x-482.jpg"><img src="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/files/2009/11/20091126-352-x-482.jpg" alt="" title="20091126 (352 x 482)" width="352" height="482" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-4583" /></a></p>
<p>察看上圖，明顯看到（比如）{<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_1+%2C+a_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_1 , a_2' title='a_1 , a_2' class='latex' />}{<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=b_1+%2C+b_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='b_1 , b_2' title='b_1 , b_2' class='latex' />} 已重覆出現，見  {<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=b_1+%2C+b_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='b_1 , b_2' title='b_1 , b_2' class='latex' />}{<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_1+%2C+a_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_1 , a_2' title='a_1 , a_2' class='latex' />}。又或出現了 {<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_1+%2C+a_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_1 , a_2' title='a_1 , a_2' class='latex' />}{<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f_1+%2C+f_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f_1 , f_2' title='f_1 , f_2' class='latex' />} 及 {<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f_1+%2C+f_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f_1 , f_2' title='f_1 , f_2' class='latex' />}{<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_1+%2C+a_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_1 , a_2' title='a_1 , a_2' class='latex' />} 等等。</p>
<p>那麼「存在起碼一對夫婦」的可能情況，應是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=C%5E6_1C%5E%7B10%7D_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='C^6_1C^{10}_2' title='C^6_1C^{10}_2' class='latex' /> 減去重覆數算的情況數目。</p>
<p>那麼共有多少個重覆數算的情況？</p>
<p>可以想像</p>
<p>{<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_1+%2C+a_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_1 , a_2' title='a_1 , a_2' class='latex' />}{<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=b_1+%2C+b_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='b_1 , b_2' title='b_1 , b_2' class='latex' />}<br />
{<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=b_1+%2C+b_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='b_1 , b_2' title='b_1 , b_2' class='latex' />}{<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_1+%2C+a_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_1 , a_2' title='a_1 , a_2' class='latex' />}</p>
<p>是重覆數算了一次，又或</p>
<p>{<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_1+%2C+a_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_1 , a_2' title='a_1 , a_2' class='latex' />}{<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f_1+%2C+f_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f_1 , f_2' title='f_1 , f_2' class='latex' />}<br />
{<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f_1+%2C+f_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f_1 , f_2' title='f_1 , f_2' class='latex' />}{<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_1+%2C+a_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_1 , a_2' title='a_1 , a_2' class='latex' />}</p>
<p>又是重覆數算了一次，是故</p>
<p>6 對夫婦選出 2 對被重覆數算了，共 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=C%5E6_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='C^6_2' title='C^6_2' class='latex' /> 種情況。</p>
<p>（或用更直接的方法，從上圖中數算重覆之情況共 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=0+%2B+1+%2B+2+%2B+3+%2B+4+%2B+5+%3D+15&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15' title='0 + 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 = 15' class='latex' /> 個。）</p>
<p>所以，</p>
<p>P(起碼一對夫婦) 不是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7BC%5E6_1C%5E%7B10%7D_2%7D%7BC%5E%7B12%7D_4%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{C^6_1C^{10}_2}{C^{12}_4}' title='\frac{C^6_1C^{10}_2}{C^{12}_4}' class='latex' />，而是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7BC%5E6_1C%5E%7B10%7D_2+-+C%5E6_2%7D%7BC%5E%7B12%7D_4%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{C^6_1C^{10}_2 - C^6_2}{C^{12}_4}' title='\frac{C^6_1C^{10}_2 - C^6_2}{C^{12}_4}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>因此</p>
<p>P(僅有一對夫婦) = P(起碼一對夫婦) &#8211; P(兩對夫婦) = <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7BC%5E6_1C%5E%7B10%7D_2+-+C%5E6_2%7D%7BC%5E%7B12%7D_4%7D+-+%5Cfrac%7BC%5E6_2%7D%7BC%5E%7B12%7D_4%7D+%3D+%5Cfrac%7B16%7D%7B33%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{C^6_1C^{10}_2 - C^6_2}{C^{12}_4} - \frac{C^6_2}{C^{12}_4} = \frac{16}{33}' title='\frac{C^6_1C^{10}_2 - C^6_2}{C^{12}_4} - \frac{C^6_2}{C^{12}_4} = \frac{16}{33}' class='latex' />。</p>
<p>SBA：請解釋 (*) 的由來。</p>
</div>]]></content:encoded>
</item>
<item>
<title><![CDATA[利用圖像尋找非實根]]></title>
<link>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/10/26/finding-unreal-roots-by-graph/</link>
<pubDate>Mon, 26 Oct 2009 12:24:23 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>johnmayhk</dc:creator>
<guid>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/10/26/finding-unreal-roots-by-graph/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[在高中一 NSS 數學課，我開始教二次圖像和二次方程之根（roots）的關係。現在課程涉及複數，卻沒有教如何利用圖像尋找複根（complex roots）或非實根（unreal roots），我在此補]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>在高中一 NSS 數學課，我開始教二次圖像和二次方程之根（roots）的關係。現在課程涉及複數，卻沒有教如何利用圖像尋找複根（complex roots）或非實根（unreal roots），我在此補充一下。</p>
<p>以下是在下用極速粗製濫造的 ETV，同學先看看：</p>
<p><span style='text-align:center; display: block;'><object width='425' height='350'><param name='movie' value='http://www.youtube.com/v/xcsphaMANws&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' /><param name='allowfullscreen' value='true' /><param name='wmode' value='transparent' /><embed src='http://www.youtube.com/v/xcsphaMANws&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' type='application/x-shockwave-flash' allowfullscreen='true' width='425' height='350' wmode='transparent'></embed></object></span></p>
<p>解說：<!--more--></p>
<p>（甲）二次方程的情況</p>
<p>若 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=ax%5E2+%2B+bx+%2B+c+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='ax^2 + bx + c = 0' title='ax^2 + bx + c = 0' class='latex' /> 的複根是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=h+%5Cpm+ik&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='h \pm ik' title='h \pm ik' class='latex' />，則</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=ax%5E2+%2B+bx+%2B+c&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='ax^2 + bx + c' title='ax^2 + bx + c' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cequiv+a%28x+-+h+-+ik%29%28x+-+h+%2B+ik%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\equiv a(x - h - ik)(x - h + ik)' title='\equiv a(x - h - ik)(x - h + ik)' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cequiv+a%28%28x+-+h%29%5E2+%2B+k%5E2%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\equiv a((x - h)^2 + k^2)' title='\equiv a((x - h)^2 + k^2)' class='latex' /> &#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230; (*)</p>
<p>由 (*) 可見</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+ax%5E2+%2B+bx+%2B+c&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = ax^2 + bx + c' title='y = ax^2 + bx + c' class='latex' /> 的圖像，其頂點（vertex）的 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x' title='x' class='latex' />-坐標是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=h&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='h' title='h' class='latex' />，而 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=h&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='h' title='h' class='latex' /> 就是複根的實部（real part）。</p>
<p>另外，由 (*) 可知 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+ax%5E2+%2B+bx+%2B+c&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = ax^2 + bx + c' title='y = ax^2 + bx + c' class='latex' /> 的圖像，其頂點的 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y' title='y' class='latex' />-坐標是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=ak%5E2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='ak^2' title='ak^2' class='latex' />（即片中的 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=m+%3D+ak%5E2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='m = ak^2' title='m = ak^2' class='latex' />）；</p>
<p>考慮在二次曲線上的一點 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=P&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='P' title='P' class='latex' />，其 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y' title='y' class='latex' />-坐標為 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y_1+%3D+2ak%5E2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y_1 = 2ak^2' title='y_1 = 2ak^2' class='latex' />，那麼 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=P&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='P' title='P' class='latex' /> 的 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x' title='x' class='latex' />-坐標 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x_1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x_1' title='x_1' class='latex' /> 是什麼？</p>
<p>只要把 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+2ak%5E2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = 2ak^2' title='y = 2ak^2' class='latex' /> 代入 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+a%28%28x+-+h%29%5E2+%2B+k%5E2%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = a((x - h)^2 + k^2)' title='y = a((x - h)^2 + k^2)' class='latex' />，得</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=2ak%5E2+%3D+a%28%28x_1+-+h%29%5E2+%2B+k%5E2%29+%5CRightarrow+k%5E2+%3D+%28x_1+-+h%29%5E2+%5CRightarrow+k+%3D+%26%23124%3Bx_1+-+h%26%23124%3B&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='2ak^2 = a((x_1 - h)^2 + k^2) \Rightarrow k^2 = (x_1 - h)^2 \Rightarrow k = &#124;x_1 - h&#124;' title='2ak^2 = a((x_1 - h)^2 + k^2) \Rightarrow k^2 = (x_1 - h)^2 \Rightarrow k = &#124;x_1 - h&#124;' class='latex' /></p>
<p>即是說，複根虛部中的 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=k&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='k' title='k' class='latex' />，就是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=P&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='P' title='P' class='latex' /> 的 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x' title='x' class='latex' />-坐標 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x_1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x_1' title='x_1' class='latex' /> 和 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=h&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='h' title='h' class='latex' /> 的距離。</p>
<p>（乙）三次方程的情況</p>
<p>這個要中六同學才明白，高中一同學要忍耐一下。</p>
<p>為簡化，只考慮 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E3&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^3' title='x^3' class='latex' /> 係數為 1。</p>
<p>即設 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E3+%2B+ax%5E2+%2B+bx+%2B+c+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^3 + ax^2 + bx + c = 0' title='x^3 + ax^2 + bx + c = 0' class='latex' />。</p>
<p>首先，實係數三次方程必有實根；若它只有一個實根 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Calpha&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\alpha' title='\alpha' class='latex' />，則設另外兩個複根為 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=h+%5Cpm+ik&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='h \pm ik' title='h \pm ik' class='latex' />。</p>
<p>那麼，片中曲線的方程可寫成</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+%28x+-+%5Calpha%29%28%28x+-+h%29%5E2+%2B+k%5E2%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = (x - \alpha)((x - h)^2 + k^2)' title='y = (x - \alpha)((x - h)^2 + k^2)' class='latex' /> &#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230; (1)</p>
<p>現在，設經過 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%28%5Calpha+%2C+0%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(\alpha , 0)' title='(\alpha , 0)' class='latex' /> 並相切於曲線的直線方程為</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+m%28x+-+%5Calpha%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = m(x - \alpha)' title='y = m(x - \alpha)' class='latex' /> &#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230; (2)</p>
<p>假設曲線和直線的切點（point of contact）為 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=P&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='P' title='P' class='latex' />，如何證明 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=P&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='P' title='P' class='latex' /> 的 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x' title='x' class='latex' />-坐標 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=h_1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='h_1' title='h_1' class='latex' /> (say) 就是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=h&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='h' title='h' class='latex' />？</p>
<p>我們（想像一下）解 (1)，(2)；我們得</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%28x+-+%5Calpha%29%28%28x+-+h%29%5E2+%2B+k%5E2%29+%3D+m%28x+-+%5Calpha%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(x - \alpha)((x - h)^2 + k^2) = m(x - \alpha)' title='(x - \alpha)((x - h)^2 + k^2) = m(x - \alpha)' class='latex' /></p>
<p>易知上式的解為 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+%5Calpha&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = \alpha' title='x = \alpha' class='latex' /> 或 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=h_1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='h_1' title='h_1' class='latex' />，即</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=h_1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='h_1' title='h_1' class='latex' /> 是下式的根，且是重根（repeated root）：</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%28x+-+h%29%5E2+%2B+k%5E2+%3D+m&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(x - h)^2 + k^2 = m' title='(x - h)^2 + k^2 = m' class='latex' /> &#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230; (2)</p>
<p>既是重根，把上述等式求導後，<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=h_1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='h_1' title='h_1' class='latex' /> 仍是根（Why？），即 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=h_1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='h_1' title='h_1' class='latex' /> 滿足：</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%28x+-+h%29+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(x - h) = 0' title='(x - h) = 0' class='latex' /></p>
<p>故 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=h_1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='h_1' title='h_1' class='latex' /> 真的是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=h&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='h' title='h' class='latex' />。</p>
<p>由此可見，<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=h+%28%3D+h_1%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='h (= h_1)' title='h (= h_1)' class='latex' /> 滿足 (2)，故</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=k%5E2+%3D+m+%5CRightarrow+k+%3D+%5Csqrt%7Bm%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='k^2 = m \Rightarrow k = \sqrt{m}' title='k^2 = m \Rightarrow k = \sqrt{m}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>而片中的 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7BV%7D%7BH%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{V}{H}' title='\frac{V}{H}' class='latex' /> 不過是切線的斜率，即 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=m+%3D+%5Cfrac%7BV%7D%7BH%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='m = \frac{V}{H}' title='m = \frac{V}{H}' class='latex' />。</p>
<p>這裡有一個問題，如果切線的斜率 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=m&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='m' title='m' class='latex' /> 是負數，又會怎樣？即出現例如以下情況：</p>
<p><img src="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/files/2009/10/20091026gif01.gif"></p>
<p>豈不是不能計出 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=k+%3D+%5Csqrt%7Bm%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='k = \sqrt{m}' title='k = \sqrt{m}' class='latex' />？</p>
<p>同學，試花一點時間先想想。</p>
<p>開估：當我們考慮 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E3&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^3' title='x^3' class='latex' /> 的係數為 1 （或其他正數）時，<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=m&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='m' title='m' class='latex' /> 一定是正數。</p>
<p>無他，</p>
<p>因為我們考慮的方程是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+%28x+-+%5Calpha%29%28%28x+-+h%29%5E2+%2B+k%5E2%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = (x - \alpha)((x - h)^2 + k^2)' title='y = (x - \alpha)((x - h)^2 + k^2)' class='latex' />；</p>
<p>故此，</p>
<p>代入大於 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Calpha&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\alpha' title='\alpha' class='latex' /> 的 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x' title='x' class='latex' /> 值，對應的 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y' title='y' class='latex' /> 值為正。（即上圖是沒有能的）<br />
代入小於 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Calpha&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\alpha' title='\alpha' class='latex' /> 的 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x' title='x' class='latex' /> 值，對應的 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y' title='y' class='latex' /> 值為負。</p>
<p>這就保證了 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=m+%26%2362%3B+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='m &gt; 0' title='m &gt; 0' class='latex' />。</p>
</div>]]></content:encoded>
</item>
<item>
<title><![CDATA[Solve DE by method of substitution]]></title>
<link>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/10/19/solve-de-by-method-of-substitution/</link>
<pubDate>Mon, 19 Oct 2009 09:35:37 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>johnmayhk</dc:creator>
<guid>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/10/19/solve-de-by-method-of-substitution/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[In solving ordinary differential equation &#8230;&#8230;&#8230;. (*) (where are constants) we use th]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>In solving ordinary differential equation</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=A%28ax+%2B+b%29%5E2%5Cfrac%7Bd%5E2y%7D%7Bdx%5E2%7D+%2B+B%28ax+%2B+b%29%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D+%2B+Cy+%3D+f%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='A(ax + b)^2\frac{d^2y}{dx^2} + B(ax + b)\frac{dy}{dx} + Cy = f(x)' title='A(ax + b)^2\frac{d^2y}{dx^2} + B(ax + b)\frac{dy}{dx} + Cy = f(x)' class='latex' /> &#8230;&#8230;&#8230;. (*)</p>
<p>(where <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=A%2C+B%2C+C&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='A, B, C' title='A, B, C' class='latex' /> are constants)</p>
<p>we use the method of substitution, let</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=ax+%2B+b+%3D+e%5Ez&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='ax + b = e^z' title='ax + b = e^z' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Then we have <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bdz%7D%7Bdx%7D+%3D+ae%5E%7B-z%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{dz}{dx} = ae^{-z}' title='\frac{dz}{dx} = ae^{-z}' class='latex' /> and hence<!--more--></p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D+%3D+ae%5E%7B-z%7D%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdz%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{dy}{dx} = ae^{-z}\frac{dy}{dz}' title='\frac{dy}{dx} = ae^{-z}\frac{dy}{dz}' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D+%3D+ae%5E%7B-2z%7D%28%5Cfrac%7Bd%5E2y%7D%7Bdz%5E2%7D+-+%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdz%7D%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{dy}{dx} = ae^{-2z}(\frac{d^2y}{dz^2} - \frac{dy}{dz})' title='\frac{dy}{dx} = ae^{-2z}(\frac{d^2y}{dz^2} - \frac{dy}{dz})' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Therefore, (*) can be further reduced as a second order linear differential equation with constant coefficients:</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=aA%5Cfrac%7Bd%5E2y%7D%7Bdz%5E2%7D+%2B+a%28B+-+A%29%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdz%7D+%2B+Cy+%3D+g%28z%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='aA\frac{d^2y}{dz^2} + a(B - A)\frac{dy}{dz} + Cy = g(z)' title='aA\frac{d^2y}{dz^2} + a(B - A)\frac{dy}{dz} + Cy = g(z)' class='latex' />, where <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=g%28z%29+%3D+f%28%5Cfrac%7Be%5Ez+-+b%7D%7Ba%7D%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='g(z) = f(\frac{e^z - b}{a})' title='g(z) = f(\frac{e^z - b}{a})' class='latex' /></p>
<p>The first question come out from students&#8217; minds: how can you think about the substitution <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=e%5Ez+%3D+ax+%2B+b&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='e^z = ax + b' title='e^z = ax + b' class='latex' />? Sorry, I cannot answer. This should be a great idea from someone(s) in the past, but how could he/she think about that? Well, you may explore the historical facts and tell me later. Second question, as asked by a student today morning, Chan, is it always possible to substitute <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=e%5Ez+%3D+ax+%2B+b&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='e^z = ax + b' title='e^z = ax + b' class='latex' />? Good question. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=e%5Ez&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='e^z' title='e^z' class='latex' /> is different from <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=ax+%2B+b&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='ax + b' title='ax + b' class='latex' /> in general, at least <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=e%5Ez&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='e^z' title='e^z' class='latex' /> must be positive but <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=ax+%2B+b&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='ax + b' title='ax + b' class='latex' /> may be negative.</p>
<p>OK, let&#8217;s consider a concrete example from a textbook.</p>
<p>Solve</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%28x+%2B+2%29%5E2%5Cfrac%7Bd%5E2y%7D%7Bdx%5E2%7D+%2B+%28x+%2B+2%29%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D+%2B+y+%3D+3x+%2B+4&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(x + 2)^2\frac{d^2y}{dx^2} + (x + 2)\frac{dy}{dx} + y = 3x + 4' title='(x + 2)^2\frac{d^2y}{dx^2} + (x + 2)\frac{dy}{dx} + y = 3x + 4' class='latex' /> &#8230;&#8230;&#8230;. (#)</p>
<p>In the solution, it wrote <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%2B+2+%3D+e%5Ez&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x + 2 = e^z' title='x + 2 = e^z' class='latex' /> immediately and, after a series of mechanical procedure, it yields</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+C_1%28x+%2B+2%29+%2B+C_2%28x+%2B+2%29%5Cln%28x+%2B+2%29+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B3%7D%7B2%7D%28x+%2B+2%29%5Cln%5E2%28x+%2B+2%29+-+2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = C_1(x + 2) + C_2(x + 2)\ln(x + 2) + \frac{3}{2}(x + 2)\ln^2(x + 2) - 2' title='y = C_1(x + 2) + C_2(x + 2)\ln(x + 2) + \frac{3}{2}(x + 2)\ln^2(x + 2) - 2' class='latex' /> </p>
<p>Obviously, the above is valid only when <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%2B+2+%26%2362%3B+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x + 2 &gt; 0' title='x + 2 &gt; 0' class='latex' />.</p>
<p>But, there should not be any restriction on <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x' title='x' class='latex' /> in the equation (#).</p>
<p>So, what is the solution to (#) indeed? Is it simply add absolute signs to the above and yield</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+C_1%28x+%2B+2%29+%2B+C_2%28x+%2B+2%29%5Cln%26%23124%3Bx+%2B+2%26%23124%3B+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B3%7D%7B2%7D%28x+%2B+2%29%5Cln%5E2%26%23124%3Bx+%2B+2%26%23124%3B+-+2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = C_1(x + 2) + C_2(x + 2)\ln&#124;x + 2&#124; + \frac{3}{2}(x + 2)\ln^2&#124;x + 2&#124; - 2' title='y = C_1(x + 2) + C_2(x + 2)\ln&#124;x + 2&#124; + \frac{3}{2}(x + 2)\ln^2&#124;x + 2&#124; - 2' class='latex' /> ?</p>
<p>Urm&#8230;students, you may try on your own: </p>
<p>when <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%2B+2+%26%2360%3B+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x + 2 &lt; 0' title='x + 2 &lt; 0' class='latex' />, let <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%2B+2+%3D+-e%5Ez&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x + 2 = -e^z' title='x + 2 = -e^z' class='latex' />. See what you will obtain?</p>
<p>OK? Do you obtain something like</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+D_1%28x+%2B+2%29+%2B+D_2%28x+%2B+2%29%5E%7B-1%7D+-+%5Cfrac%7B3%7D%7B2%7D%28x+%2B+2%29%5Cln%28-x-2%29+-+2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = D_1(x + 2) + D_2(x + 2)^{-1} - \frac{3}{2}(x + 2)\ln(-x-2) - 2' title='y = D_1(x + 2) + D_2(x + 2)^{-1} - \frac{3}{2}(x + 2)\ln(-x-2) - 2' class='latex' /> for <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%2B+2+%26%2360%3B+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x + 2 &lt; 0' title='x + 2 &lt; 0' class='latex' /> ?</p>
<p>(Please help me to debug, because I just did it in a hurry&#8230;)</p>
<p>For better setting of the question, we may post the question as</p>
<p>Solve</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%28x+%2B+2%29%5E2%5Cfrac%7Bd%5E2y%7D%7Bdx%5E2%7D+%2B+%28x+%2B+2%29%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D+%2B+y+%3D+3x+%2B+4&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(x + 2)^2\frac{d^2y}{dx^2} + (x + 2)\frac{dy}{dx} + y = 3x + 4' title='(x + 2)^2\frac{d^2y}{dx^2} + (x + 2)\frac{dy}{dx} + y = 3x + 4' class='latex' /> for <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%2B+2+%26%2362%3B+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x + 2 &gt; 0' title='x + 2 &gt; 0' class='latex' />.</p>
<p>&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;&#8230;.<br />
[OT]</p>
<p>To 7B students, please refer to the following post for the question I&#8217;d mentioned in the lesson today:<br />
<a href="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2007/10/05/alpm-past-paper-1998-paper-ii-q11/" target="blank">http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2007/10/05/alpm-past-paper-1998-paper-ii-q11/</a></p>
</div>]]></content:encoded>
</item>
<item>
<title><![CDATA[逆函數未必連續]]></title>
<link>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/10/18/inverse-not-necessarily-continuous/</link>
<pubDate>Sun, 18 Oct 2009 05:42:18 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>johnmayhk</dc:creator>
<guid>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/10/18/inverse-not-necessarily-continuous/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[函數 連續，並不保證逆函數 也連續。 (在定義兩個拓樸空間同胚（homeomorphic）時，就是要求他們之間存在一一對應的連續函數 ，並 也要連續。) 舉例，設 並 （即 不過是 中的 unit c]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>函數 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f' title='f' class='latex' /> 連續，並不保證逆函數 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%5E%7B-1%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f^{-1}' title='f^{-1}' class='latex' /> 也連續。</p>
<p>(在定義兩個拓樸空間同胚（homeomorphic）時，就是要求他們之間存在一一對應的連續函數 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f' title='f' class='latex' />，並 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%5E%7B-1%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f^{-1}' title='f^{-1}' class='latex' /> 也要連續。)</p>
<p>舉例，設 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=X+%3D+%5B0%2C+1%29+%5Csubset+%5Cmathbb%7BR%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='X = [0, 1) \subset \mathbb{R}' title='X = [0, 1) \subset \mathbb{R}' class='latex' /> 並 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=Y+%3D+%5Cmathbb%7BS%7D%5E1+%5Csubset+%5Cmathbb%7BR%7D%5E2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='Y = \mathbb{S}^1 \subset \mathbb{R}^2' title='Y = \mathbb{S}^1 \subset \mathbb{R}^2' class='latex' />（即 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=Y&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='Y' title='Y' class='latex' /> 不過是<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cmathbb%7BR%7D%5E2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\mathbb{R}^2' title='\mathbb{R}^2' class='latex' /> 中的 unit circle）定義 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f+%3A+X+%5Crightarrow+Y&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f : X \rightarrow Y' title='f : X \rightarrow Y' class='latex' /> 使 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28t%29+%3D+%28%5Ccos+2%5Cpi+t+%2C+%5Csin+2%5Cpi+t%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(t) = (\cos 2\pi t , \sin 2\pi t)' title='f(t) = (\cos 2\pi t , \sin 2\pi t)' class='latex' />，一看下圖，立即知道 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%5E%7B-1%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f^{-1}' title='f^{-1}' class='latex' /> 不連續。</p>
<p><img src="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/files/2009/10/20091018gif01.gif"></p>
</div>]]></content:encoded>
</item>
<item>
<title><![CDATA[奇異解]]></title>
<link>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/09/27/singular-solution/</link>
<pubDate>Sun, 27 Sep 2009 13:11:59 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>johnmayhk</dc:creator>
<guid>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/09/27/singular-solution/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[感謝中五的 Carman 回應了上一個 post，讓我也閒聊幾句，高手見諒。 比如 那麼 其實是什麼？ 尋找 ，就是解微分方程的過程，上例不過用積分，得到 如果 是 的原函數（primitive fu]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>感謝中五的 Carman 回應了上一個 post，讓我也閒聊幾句，高手見諒。</p>
<p>比如</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D+%3D+f%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{dy}{dx} = f(x)' title='\frac{dy}{dx} = f(x)' class='latex' /></p>
<p>那麼 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y' title='y' class='latex' /> 其實是什麼？</p>
<p>尋找 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y' title='y' class='latex' />，就是解微分方程的過程，上例不過用積分，得到</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+%5Cint+f%28x%29dx&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = \int f(x)dx' title='y = \int f(x)dx' class='latex' /><!--more--></p>
<p>如果 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=F%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='F(x)' title='F(x)' class='latex' /> 是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x)' title='f(x)' class='latex' /> 的原函數（primitive function），即 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7BdF%28x%29%7D%7Bdx%7D+%3D+f%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{dF(x)}{dx} = f(x)' title='\frac{dF(x)}{dx} = f(x)' class='latex' />，我們可寫</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+F%28x%29+%2B+C&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = F(x) + C' title='y = F(x) + C' class='latex' />（其中 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=C&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='C' title='C' class='latex' /> 是任意常數）</p>
<p>那麼，如果 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x)' title='f(x)' class='latex' /> 若有「另一個」原函數 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=G%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='G(x)' title='G(x)' class='latex' />，它一定是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=F%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='F(x)' title='F(x)' class='latex' /> 的形式嗎？這是明顯的，正如 Carman 說</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29+%3D+%5Cfrac%7BdF%28x%29%7D%7Bdx%7D+%3D+%5Cfrac%7BdG%28x%29%7D%7Bdx%7D+%5CRightarrow+F%28x%29+%5Cequiv+G%28x%29+%2B+C&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x) = \frac{dF(x)}{dx} = \frac{dG(x)}{dx} \Rightarrow F(x) \equiv G(x) + C' title='f(x) = \frac{dF(x)}{dx} = \frac{dG(x)}{dx} \Rightarrow F(x) \equiv G(x) + C' class='latex' /></p>
<p>但是，如果我們考慮隱函數（implicit functions），情況可能複雜一些。</p>
<p>比如 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=F%28x%2Cy%29+%3D+C&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='F(x,y) = C' title='F(x,y) = C' class='latex' /> 可推導 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D+%3D+f%28x%2Cy%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{dy}{dx} = f(x,y)' title='\frac{dy}{dx} = f(x,y)' class='latex' />，但我們不能立即寫 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+%5Cint+f%28x%2Cy%29dx&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = \int f(x,y)dx' title='y = \int f(x,y)dx' class='latex' />；隨便設 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%2Cy%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x,y)' title='f(x,y)' class='latex' />，未必容易找出 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y' title='y' class='latex' /> 是什麼。比如，設 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D+%3D+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx+%2B+y%5E2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{1}{x + y^2}' title='\frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{1}{x + y^2}' class='latex' />，則 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y' title='y' class='latex' /> 是什麼？</p>
<p>舉例，對於任意常數 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=C&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='C' title='C' class='latex' />，</p>
<p>1. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%28x+%2B+C%29%5E2+%2B+y%5E2+%3D+r%5E2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(x + C)^2 + y^2 = r^2' title='(x + C)^2 + y^2 = r^2' class='latex' /> 滿足 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y%5E2%281+%2B+%28%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D%29%5E2%29+%3D+r%5E2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y^2(1 + (\frac{dy}{dx})^2) = r^2' title='y^2(1 + (\frac{dy}{dx})^2) = r^2' class='latex' />；</p>
<p>但除了 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%28x+%2B+C%29%5E2+%2B+y%5E2+%3D+r%5E2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(x + C)^2 + y^2 = r^2' title='(x + C)^2 + y^2 = r^2' class='latex' />，其實還有 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+%5Cpm+r&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = \pm r' title='y = \pm r' class='latex' /> 滿足上式。</p>
<p>2. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+%28x+%2B+C%29%5E2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = (x + C)^2' title='y = (x + C)^2' class='latex' /> 滿足 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%28%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D%29%5E2+%3D+4y&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(\frac{dy}{dx})^2 = 4y' title='(\frac{dy}{dx})^2 = 4y' class='latex' />；</p>
<p>但除了 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+%28x+%2B+C%29%5E2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = (x + C)^2' title='y = (x + C)^2' class='latex' />，其實還有 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = 0' title='y = 0' class='latex' /> 滿足上式。</p>
<p>3. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+Cx+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7BC%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = Cx + \frac{1}{C}' title='y = Cx + \frac{1}{C}' class='latex' /> （<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=C+%5Cne+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='C \ne 0' title='C \ne 0' class='latex' />）滿足 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D+%3D+x%28%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D%29%5E2+%2B+1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y\frac{dy}{dx} = x(\frac{dy}{dx})^2 + 1' title='y\frac{dy}{dx} = x(\frac{dy}{dx})^2 + 1' class='latex' />；</p>
<p>但除了 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+Cx+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7BC%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = Cx + \frac{1}{C}' title='y = Cx + \frac{1}{C}' class='latex' />，其實還有 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y%5E2+%3D+4x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y^2 = 4x' title='y^2 = 4x' class='latex' /> 滿足上式。</p>
<p>4. <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+Cx+%2B+C%5E2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = Cx + C^2' title='y = Cx + C^2' class='latex' /> 滿足 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+x%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D+%2B+%28%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D%29%5E2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = x\frac{dy}{dx} + (\frac{dy}{dx})^2' title='y = x\frac{dy}{dx} + (\frac{dy}{dx})^2' class='latex' />；</p>
<p>但除了 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+Cx+%2B+C%5E2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = Cx + C^2' title='y = Cx + C^2' class='latex' />，其實還有 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+-%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B4%7Dx%5E2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = -\frac{1}{4}x^2' title='y = -\frac{1}{4}x^2' class='latex' /> 滿足上式。</p>
<p>上述例子，涉及任意常數 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=C&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='C' title='C' class='latex' /> 者，是微分方程的通解（general solution），而另一個解就是奇異解（singular solution）。</p>
<p>修中學應用數學的同學，我們懂得解小部分一階線性微分方程，起碼可以應付上述的例 1,2，找出通解。但課程沒有教大家如何找奇異解。</p>
<p>聞說，奇異解是通解的包絡線（envelope），何謂包絡線？看看 wiki 的介紹</p>
<p><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Envelope_(mathematics)" target="blank">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Envelope_(mathematics)</a></p>
<p>這裡有濟濟一堂的舊文，有興趣或可看看：</p>
<p><a href="http://www.hkedcity.net/ihouse_tools/forum/read.phtml?forum_id=27877&#38;current_page=&#38;i=955854&#38;t=954351&#38;v=t" target="blank">http://www.hkedcity.net/ihouse_tools/forum/read.phtml?forum_id=27877&#38;current_page=&#38;i=955854&#38;t=954351&#38;v=t</a></p>
<p>現在回看上述例子 3，如果把通解的曲線族（family of curves）<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+Cx+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7BC%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = Cx + \frac{1}{C}' title='y = Cx + \frac{1}{C}' class='latex' /> 繪一繪（輸入不同的 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=C&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='C' title='C' class='latex' /> 值），得到直線族（family of straight lines）如下：</p>
<p><a href="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/files/2009/09/20090927gif01.jpg"><img src="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/files/2009/09/20090927gif01.jpg?w=300" alt="20090927gif01" title="20090927gif01" width="300" height="281" class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-4230" /></a></p>
<p>現在把奇異解 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y%5E2+%3D+4x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y^2 = 4x' title='y^2 = 4x' class='latex' /> 也繪於其上，得：</p>
<p><a href="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/files/2009/09/20090927gif02.jpg"><img src="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/files/2009/09/20090927gif02.jpg?w=300" alt="20090927gif02" title="20090927gif02" width="300" height="260" class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-4233" /></a></p>
<p>同學，你「感受」到曲線 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y%5E2+%3D+4x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y^2 = 4x' title='y^2 = 4x' class='latex' /> 是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+Cx+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7BC%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = Cx + \frac{1}{C}' title='y = Cx + \frac{1}{C}' class='latex' /> 的包絡線嗎？</p>
<p>回看例子 1,2，容易想像奇異解是那些通解的包絡線，大家驗證一下。</p>
<p>再回看上個 post 的例子，把 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E3+-+4x%5E2y+%2B+3xy%5E2+-+y%5E5+%3D+C&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^3 - 4x^2y + 3xy^2 - y^5 = C' title='x^3 - 4x^2y + 3xy^2 - y^5 = C' class='latex' /> 繪出如下：</p>
<p><a href="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/files/2009/09/20090927gif03.jpg"><img src="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/files/2009/09/20090927gif03.jpg?w=300" alt="20090927gif03" title="20090927gif03" width="300" height="282" class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-4234" /></a></p>
<p>（注：由上而下，<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=C&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='C' title='C' class='latex' /> 值分別為 -20,-10,-5,-1,0,1,5,10,20；另外，對應 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=C+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='C = 0' title='C = 0' class='latex' /> 的圖像頗特別。）</p>
<p>單單看上圖，該曲線族似乎沒有包絡線，那麼奇異解似乎也不存在（注：純粹猜測之言，盼高手指正）。</p>
</div>]]></content:encoded>
</item>
<item>
<title><![CDATA[Differentiation of parametric equations]]></title>
<link>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/09/24/differentiation-of-parametric-equations/</link>
<pubDate>Thu, 24 Sep 2009 09:05:49 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>johnmayhk</dc:creator>
<guid>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/09/24/differentiation-of-parametric-equations/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[It is extremely easy to set up questions about differentiation techniques (but good real life applic]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p><font face="georgia">It is extremely easy to set up questions about differentiation techniques (but good real life application questions are really rare, esp. at secondary school level), apart from tedious computation, when the differentiation involves parameter, students may have difficulties, like mistaking:</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bd%5E2y%7D%7Bdx%5E2%7D+%3D+1%2F%5Cfrac%7Bd%5E2x%7D%7Bdy%5E2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{d^2y}{dx^2} = 1/\frac{d^2x}{dy^2}' title='\frac{d^2y}{dx^2} = 1/\frac{d^2x}{dy^2}' class='latex' />　（wrong！）<br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bd%5E2y%7D%7Bdx%5E2%7D+%3D+%5Cfrac%7Bd%5E2y%7D%7Bdt%5E2%7D%2F%5Cfrac%7Bd%5E2x%7D%7Bdt%5E2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{d^2y}{dx^2} = \frac{d^2y}{dt^2}/\frac{d^2x}{dt^2}' title='\frac{d^2y}{dx^2} = \frac{d^2y}{dt^2}/\frac{d^2x}{dt^2}' class='latex' />　（wrong！）</p>
<p>Here is a question in recent quiz, which involves parametric equations:<!--more--></p>
<p>Let</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+%5Csqrt%7B2+%2B+t%5E2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = \sqrt{2 + t^2}' title='x = \sqrt{2 + t^2}' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+%5Csqrt%7B2+-+t%5E2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = \sqrt{2 - t^2}' title='y = \sqrt{2 - t^2}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Show that <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bd%5E2y%7D%7Bdx%5E2%7D+%3D+-%5Cfrac%7B4%7D%7By%5E3%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{d^2y}{dx^2} = -\frac{4}{y^3}' title='\frac{d^2y}{dx^2} = -\frac{4}{y^3}' class='latex' />.</p>
<p>Quite a neat result, isn&#8217;t it?</p>
<p>Of course, if students could eliminate <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=t&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='t' title='t' class='latex' /> and obtain <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E2+%2B+y%5E2+%3D+4&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^2 + y^2 = 4' title='x^2 + y^2 = 4' class='latex' /> at the beginning, the solution path is easy.</p>
<p>But, many tried to find <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdt%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{dy}{dt}' title='\frac{dy}{dt}' class='latex' /> and <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bdx%7D%7Bdt%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{dx}{dt}' title='\frac{dx}{dt}' class='latex' /> and they gave</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D+%3D+%5Cfrac%7B-t%282-t%5E2%29%5E%7B-1%2F2%7D%7D%7Bt%282%2Bt%5E2%29%5E%7B-1%2F2%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{-t(2-t^2)^{-1/2}}{t(2+t^2)^{-1/2}}' title='\frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{-t(2-t^2)^{-1/2}}{t(2+t^2)^{-1/2}}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>then, when they tried to differentiate the above directly, many were at a loss with variables <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%2C+y&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x, y' title='x, y' class='latex' /> and <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=t&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='t' title='t' class='latex' />.</p>
<p>Not many students could move one step further to see the following &#8220;bridging&#8221; step:</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D+%3D+-%5Cfrac%7Bx%7D%7By%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{dy}{dx} = -\frac{x}{y}' title='\frac{dy}{dx} = -\frac{x}{y}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Differentiate once more, yield <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bd%5E2y%7D%7Bdx%5E2%7D+%3D+-%5Cfrac%7B4%7D%7By%5E3%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{d^2y}{dx^2} = -\frac{4}{y^3}' title='\frac{d^2y}{dx^2} = -\frac{4}{y^3}' class='latex' />.</p>
<p>How to set a question so as to obtain the neat result <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D+%3D+-%5Cfrac%7Bx%7D%7By%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{dy}{dx} = -\frac{x}{y}' title='\frac{dy}{dx} = -\frac{x}{y}' class='latex' />?</p>
<p>Well, we may use the &#8220;walking backward&#8221; strategy, start with</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D+%3D+-%5Cfrac%7Bx%7D%7By%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{dy}{dx} = -\frac{x}{y}' title='\frac{dy}{dx} = -\frac{x}{y}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>We then solve the above differential equation</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=ydy+%3D+-xdx&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='ydy = -xdx' title='ydy = -xdx' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cint+ydy+%3D+-%5Cint+xdx&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\int ydy = -\int xdx' title='\int ydy = -\int xdx' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7By%5E2%7D%7B2%7D+%3D+-%5Cfrac%7Bx%5E2%7D%7B2%7D+%2B+C_1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{y^2}{2} = -\frac{x^2}{2} + C_1' title='\frac{y^2}{2} = -\frac{x^2}{2} + C_1' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E2+%2B+y%5E2+%3D+C&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^2 + y^2 = C' title='x^2 + y^2 = C' class='latex' /></p>
<p>It is just an equation of circle, and it is not that difficult to re-write the equation into parametric form, like</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+%5Csqrt%7BC+%2B+t%5E2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = \sqrt{C + t^2}' title='x = \sqrt{C + t^2}' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+%5Csqrt%7BC+-+t%5E2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = \sqrt{C - t^2}' title='y = \sqrt{C - t^2}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>or even</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+r%5Ccos%5Ctheta&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = r\cos\theta' title='x = r\cos\theta' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+r%5Csin%5Ctheta&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = r\sin\theta' title='y = r\sin\theta' class='latex' /></p>
<p>etc.</p>
<p>A bit modification, we may consider an ellipse, say</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=4x%5E2+%2B+9y%5E2+%3D+1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='4x^2 + 9y^2 = 1' title='4x^2 + 9y^2 = 1' class='latex' /></p>
<p>and it is easy to have <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D+%3D+-%5Cfrac%7B4x%7D%7B9y%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{dy}{dx} = -\frac{4x}{9y}' title='\frac{dy}{dx} = -\frac{4x}{9y}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Now, &#8220;walking backward&#8221;, we can establish the parametric equation (one could choose as ugly as he likes) of the ellipse as</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+%5Csqrt%7B%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B8%7D+%2B+9t%5E2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = \sqrt{\frac{1}{8} + 9t^2}' title='x = \sqrt{\frac{1}{8} + 9t^2}' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+%5Csqrt%7B%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B18%7D+-+4t%5E2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = \sqrt{\frac{1}{18} - 4t^2}' title='y = \sqrt{\frac{1}{18} - 4t^2}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>By the &#8220;set-in-advance&#8221; result </p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D+%3D+-%5Cfrac%7B4x%7D%7B9y%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{dy}{dx} = -\frac{4x}{9y}' title='\frac{dy}{dx} = -\frac{4x}{9y}' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=4x+%2B+9y%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='4x + 9y\frac{dy}{dx} = 0' title='4x + 9y\frac{dy}{dx} = 0' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Differentiate with respect to <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x' title='x' class='latex' />, yield</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y%5Cfrac%7Bd%5E2y%7D%7Bdx%5E2%7D+%2B+%28%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D%29%5E2+%3D+-%5Cfrac%7B4%7D%7B9%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y\frac{d^2y}{dx^2} + (\frac{dy}{dx})^2 = -\frac{4}{9}' title='y\frac{d^2y}{dx^2} + (\frac{dy}{dx})^2 = -\frac{4}{9}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Well, we may ask students to prove the above.</p>
<p>Urm, could we set up similar questions by considering the &#8220;set-in-advance&#8221; results, like</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D+%3D+%5Cfrac%7Bax+%2B+by%7D%7Bcx+%2B+dy%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{ax + by}{cx + dy}' title='\frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{ax + by}{cx + dy}' class='latex' />?</p>
<p>Students, try to explore it at your command.</font></p>
</div>]]></content:encoded>
</item>
<item>
<title><![CDATA[Different formats of primitive functions]]></title>
<link>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/09/22/different-formats-of-primitive-functions/</link>
<pubDate>Tue, 22 Sep 2009 08:52:57 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>johnmayhk</dc:creator>
<guid>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/09/22/different-formats-of-primitive-functions/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Just take a rest from work, type something boring here&#8230; Students, you may regard the above as ]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>Just take a rest from work, type something boring here&#8230;</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cint+%5Cfrac%7Bdx%7D%7B%5Csqrt%7B1+-+x%5E2%7D%7D+%3D+%5Csin%5E%7B-1%7Dx+%2B+C&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\int \frac{dx}{\sqrt{1 - x^2}} = \sin^{-1}x + C' title='\int \frac{dx}{\sqrt{1 - x^2}} = \sin^{-1}x + C' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Students, you may regard the above as a formula or derive it by using trigonometric substitution <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+%5Csin%5Ctheta&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = \sin\theta' title='x = \sin\theta' class='latex' /> every time.</p>
<p>As you may know that the expression of a primitive is not unique, we may have other forms being a primitive of <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%5Csqrt%7B1+-+x%5E2%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{1}{\sqrt{1 - x^2}}' title='\frac{1}{\sqrt{1 - x^2}}' class='latex' />, say<!--more--></p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cint+%5Cfrac%7Bdx%7D%7B%5Csqrt%7B1+-+x%5E2%7D%7D+%3D+-%5Ccos%5E%7B-1%7Dx+%2B+C&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\int \frac{dx}{\sqrt{1 - x^2}} = -\cos^{-1}x + C' title='\int \frac{dx}{\sqrt{1 - x^2}} = -\cos^{-1}x + C' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cint+%5Cfrac%7Bdx%7D%7B%5Csqrt%7B1+-+x%5E2%7D%7D+%3D+-2%5Ccos%5E%7B-1%7D%5Csqrt%7B%5Cfrac%7Bx%2B1%7D%7B2%7D%7D+%2B+C&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\int \frac{dx}{\sqrt{1 - x^2}} = -2\cos^{-1}\sqrt{\frac{x+1}{2}} + C' title='\int \frac{dx}{\sqrt{1 - x^2}} = -2\cos^{-1}\sqrt{\frac{x+1}{2}} + C' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cint+%5Cfrac%7Bdx%7D%7B%5Csqrt%7B1+-+x%5E2%7D%7D+%3D+%5Csin%5E%7B-1%7D%28a%5Csqrt%7B1+-+x%5E2%7D+%2B+x%5Csqrt%7B1+-+a%5E2%7D%29+%2B+C&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\int \frac{dx}{\sqrt{1 - x^2}} = \sin^{-1}(a\sqrt{1 - x^2} + x\sqrt{1 - a^2}) + C' title='\int \frac{dx}{\sqrt{1 - x^2}} = \sin^{-1}(a\sqrt{1 - x^2} + x\sqrt{1 - a^2}) + C' class='latex' /> where <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%26%23124%3Ba%26%23124%3B+%5Cle+1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='&#124;a&#124; \le 1' title='&#124;a&#124; \le 1' class='latex' /></p>
<p>To show the validity of the above, simply by differentiation (try, esp. the last one). But, apart from the above, any other &#8216;format&#8217; of a primitive? How to obtain primitives of different &#8216;formats&#8217; (esp. the last one)?</p>
</div>]]></content:encoded>
</item>
<item>
<title><![CDATA[類似地？]]></title>
<link>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/09/14/similarly/</link>
<pubDate>Mon, 14 Sep 2009 06:06:56 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>johnmayhk</dc:creator>
<guid>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/09/14/similarly/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[小心，對一些運算法則，我們定要正本清源，不能單以一句「類似地」便隨便進行「類似」運算。 e.g. 1 循環小數 　正確，但不是「類似地」得到： （錯！） 事實上， e.g. 2 二階導數 　正確（設考]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>小心，對一些運算法則，我們定要正本清源，不能單以一句「類似地」便隨便進行「類似」運算。</p>
<p>e.g. 1 循環小數</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=0.3+%5Ctimes+0.4+%3D+0.12&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='0.3 \times 0.4 = 0.12' title='0.3 \times 0.4 = 0.12' class='latex' />　正確，但不是「類似地」得到：</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=0.%5Cdot+3+%5Ctimes+0.%5Cdot+4+%3D+0.%5Cdot+1%5Cdot+2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='0.\dot 3 \times 0.\dot 4 = 0.\dot 1\dot 2' title='0.\dot 3 \times 0.\dot 4 = 0.\dot 1\dot 2' class='latex' />（錯！）<!--more--></p>
<p>事實上，</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=0.%5Cdot+3+%5Ctimes+0.%5Cdot+4+%3D+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B3%7D+%5Ctimes+%5Cfrac%7B4%7D%7B9%7D+%3D+%5Cfrac%7B4%7D%7B27%7D+%3D+0.%5Cdot+14+%5Cdot+8&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='0.\dot 3 \times 0.\dot 4 = \frac{1}{3} \times \frac{4}{9} = \frac{4}{27} = 0.\dot 14 \dot 8' title='0.\dot 3 \times 0.\dot 4 = \frac{1}{3} \times \frac{4}{9} = \frac{4}{27} = 0.\dot 14 \dot 8' class='latex' /></p>
<p>e.g. 2 二階導數</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bdx%7D%7Bdy%7D+%3D+1%2F%28%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{dx}{dy} = 1/(\frac{dy}{dx})' title='\frac{dx}{dy} = 1/(\frac{dy}{dx})' class='latex' />　正確（設考慮的導數有定義），但不是「類似地」得到：</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bd%5E2x%7D%7Bdy%5E2%7D+%3D+1%2F%28%5Cfrac%7Bd%5E2y%7D%7Bdx%5E2%7D%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{d^2x}{dy^2} = 1/(\frac{d^2y}{dx^2})' title='\frac{d^2x}{dy^2} = 1/(\frac{d^2y}{dx^2})' class='latex' />（錯！）</p>
<p>那麼，<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bd%5E2x%7D%7Bdy%5E2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{d^2x}{dy^2}' title='\frac{d^2x}{dy^2}' class='latex' /> 和 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bd%5E2y%7D%7Bdx%5E2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}' title='\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}' class='latex' /> 有何關係？見下：</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bd%5E2x%7D%7Bdy%5E2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{d^2x}{dy^2}' title='\frac{d^2x}{dy^2}' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D+%5Cfrac%7Bd%7D%7Bdy%7D%28%5Cfrac%7Bdx%7D%7Bdy%7D%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='= \frac{d}{dy}(\frac{dx}{dy})' title='= \frac{d}{dy}(\frac{dx}{dy})' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D+%5Cfrac%7Bd%7D%7Bdy%7D%28%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D%29%5E%7B-1%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='= \frac{d}{dy}(\frac{dy}{dx})^{-1}' title='= \frac{d}{dy}(\frac{dy}{dx})^{-1}' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D+%5Cfrac%7Bd%7D%7Bdx%7D%28%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D%29%5E%7B-1%7D%5Cfrac%7Bdx%7D%7Bdy%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='= \frac{d}{dx}(\frac{dy}{dx})^{-1}\frac{dx}{dy}' title='= \frac{d}{dx}(\frac{dy}{dx})^{-1}\frac{dx}{dy}' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D+-%28%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D%29%5E%7B-2%7D%5Cfrac%7Bd%5E2y%7D%7Bdx%5E2%7D%28%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D%29%5E%7B-1%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='= -(\frac{dy}{dx})^{-2}\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}(\frac{dy}{dx})^{-1}' title='= -(\frac{dy}{dx})^{-2}\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}(\frac{dy}{dx})^{-1}' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D+-%28%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D%29%5E%7B-3%7D%5Cfrac%7Bd%5E2y%7D%7Bdx%5E2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='= -(\frac{dy}{dx})^{-3}\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}' title='= -(\frac{dy}{dx})^{-3}\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>e.g. 3 期望值</p>
<p>設 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x)' title='f(x)' class='latex' /> 是連續隨機變量 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=X&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='X' title='X' class='latex' /> 的概率密度函數（p.d.f.)，那麼 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=X&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='X' title='X' class='latex' /> 的期望值是</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=E%28X%29+%3D+%5Cint_%7B-%5Cinfty%7D%5E%7B%2B%5Cinfty%7Dxf%28x%29dx&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='E(X) = \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty}xf(x)dx' title='E(X) = \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty}xf(x)dx' class='latex' /></p>
<p>但不是「類似地」得到：</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=E%28X%5E2%29+%3D+%5Cint_%7B-%5Cinfty%7D%5E%7B%2B%5Cinfty%7Dx%5E2f%28x%5E2%29d%28x%5E2%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='E(X^2) = \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty}x^2f(x^2)d(x^2)' title='E(X^2) = \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty}x^2f(x^2)d(x^2)' class='latex' />（錯！）</p>
<p>事實上，</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=E%28X%5E2%29+%3D+%5Cint_%7B-%5Cinfty%7D%5E%7B%2B%5Cinfty%7Dx%5E2f%28x%29dx&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='E(X^2) = \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty}x^2f(x)dx' title='E(X^2) = \int_{-\infty}^{+\infty}x^2f(x)dx' class='latex' /> 而已。</p>
<p>相信還有不少例子，歡迎分享！</p>
</div>]]></content:encoded>
</item>
<item>
<title><![CDATA[會議補充二則]]></title>
<link>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/09/05/school-math-meeting/</link>
<pubDate>Sat, 05 Sep 2009 15:32:11 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>johnmayhk</dc:creator>
<guid>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/09/05/school-math-meeting/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[1. 校內的數學科會議，談到 extended reading/learning，我隨便舉例，讓同事略略看片： 但我只輕鬆帶過，大家用懷疑的眼光問：「怎會可能？」嗯，我也不知道，早前因為想找有關 te]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>1.<br />
校內的數學科會議，談到 extended reading/learning，我隨便舉例，讓同事略略看片：</p>
<p><span style='text-align:center; display: block;'><object width='425' height='350'><param name='movie' value='http://www.youtube.com/v/R_w4HYXuo9M&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' /><param name='allowfullscreen' value='true' /><param name='wmode' value='transparent' /><embed src='http://www.youtube.com/v/R_w4HYXuo9M&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' type='application/x-shockwave-flash' allowfullscreen='true' width='425' height='350' wmode='transparent'></embed></object></span></p>
<p>但我只輕鬆帶過，大家用懷疑的眼光問：「怎會可能？」嗯，我也不知道，早前因為想找有關 tensor 的東西，翻一翻幾年前買下的數學書：</p>
<p>&#8220;Introduction to Topological Manifolds&#8221; by John M. Lee<!--more--></p>
<p>或許可以作為課外閱讀吧：</p>
<p><img src="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-01.jpg"><br />
<img src="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-02.jpg"><br />
<img src="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-03.jpg"></p>
<p><a href="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-04.jpg">http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-04.jpg</a><br />
<a href="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-05.jpg">http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-05.jpg</a><br />
<a href="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-06.jpg">http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-06.jpg</a></p>
<p><img src="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-07.jpg"></p>
<p><a href="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-08.jpg">http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-08.jpg</a><br />
<a href="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-09.jpg">http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-09.jpg</a><br />
<a href="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-10.jpg">http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-10.jpg</a><br />
<a href="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-11.jpg">http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-11.jpg</a><br />
<a href="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-12.jpg">http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-12.jpg</a><br />
<a href="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-13.jpg">http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-13.jpg</a><br />
<a href="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-14.jpg">http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-14.jpg</a><br />
<a href="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-15.jpg">http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-15.jpg</a><br />
<a href="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-16.jpg">http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-16.jpg</a><br />
<a href="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-17.jpg">http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-17.jpg</a><br />
<a href="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-18.jpg">http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-18.jpg</a><br />
<a href="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-19.jpg">http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-19.jpg</a><br />
<a href="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-20.jpg">http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-20.jpg</a><br />
<a href="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-21.jpg">http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-21.jpg</a><br />
<a href="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-22.jpg">http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-22.jpg</a><br />
<a href="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-23.jpg">http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-23.jpg</a><br />
<a href="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-24.jpg">http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-24.jpg</a><br />
<a href="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-25.jpg">http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-25.jpg</a><br />
<a href="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-26.jpg">http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-26.jpg</a><br />
<a href="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-27.jpg">http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-27.jpg</a><br />
<a href="http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-28.jpg">http://johnng.inscyber.net/math-reading/manifold-28.jpg</a></p>
<p>2.<br />
在中五數學科級會，談備課堂。同事建議以「軌跡」作為材料，另一名同事提出一個經典軌跡問題：</p>
<p>A, B, C, D start moving at four vertices of a square in a way that A moves toward B, B moves towards C, C moves toward D and D moves toward A always at uniform speed. Determine the locus of A.</p>
<p>給中五的同學做，似乎難了一點，因為其中一個解法是要運用微分方程：</p>
<p><img src="http://johnng.inscyber.net/mathgif2/20090905.jpg"></p>
<p>參考上圖。</p>
<p>設 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=A&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='A' title='A' class='latex' /> 處於 (<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%2Cy&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x,y' title='x,y' class='latex' />)，則 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=B&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='B' title='B' class='latex' /> 處於 (<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y%2C-x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y,-x' title='y,-x' class='latex' />)。</p>
<p>求 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=A&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='A' title='A' class='latex' /> 的軌跡。</p>
<p>由題目設定，因 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=A&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='A' title='A' class='latex' /> 每刻向 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=B&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='B' title='B' class='latex' /> 走，故此，在 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=A&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='A' title='A' class='latex' /> 點處的切線必經 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=B&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='B' title='B' class='latex' /> 點，即</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7Bdx%7D+%3D+%5Cfrac%7By+-+%28-x%29%7D%7Bx+-+y%7D+%3D+%5Cfrac%7Bx+%2B+y%7D%7Bx+-+y%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{y - (-x)}{x - y} = \frac{x + y}{x - y}' title='\frac{dy}{dx} = \frac{y - (-x)}{x - y} = \frac{x + y}{x - y}' class='latex' /> 及<br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y%26%23124%3B_%7Bx+%3D+a%7D+%3D+a&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y&#124;_{x = a} = a' title='y&#124;_{x = a} = a' class='latex' /></p>
<p>代 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=u+%3D+%5Cfrac%7By%7D%7Bx%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='u = \frac{y}{x}' title='u = \frac{y}{x}' class='latex' />，得</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7B1+-+u%7D%7B1+%2B+u%5E2%7Ddu+%3D+%5Cfrac%7Bdx%7D%7Bx%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{1 - u}{1 + u^2}du = \frac{dx}{x}' title='\frac{1 - u}{1 + u^2}du = \frac{dx}{x}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>解之，得：</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Ctan%5E%7B-1%7D%28%5Cfrac%7By%7D%7Bx%7D%29+%3D+C+%2B+%5Cln%7B%5Csqrt%7Bx%5E2+%2B+y%5E2%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\tan^{-1}(\frac{y}{x}) = C + \ln{\sqrt{x^2 + y^2}}' title='\tan^{-1}(\frac{y}{x}) = C + \ln{\sqrt{x^2 + y^2}}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>由條件 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y%26%23124%3B_%7Bx+%3D+a%7D+%3D+a&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y&#124;_{x = a} = a' title='y&#124;_{x = a} = a' class='latex' />，得</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Ctan%5E%7B-1%7D%28%5Cfrac%7By%7D%7Bx%7D%29+%3D+%5Cfrac%7B%5Cpi%7D%7B4%7D+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Cln%7B%5Cfrac%7Bx%5E2+%2B+y%5E2%7D%7B2a%5E2%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\tan^{-1}(\frac{y}{x}) = \frac{\pi}{4} + \frac{1}{2}\ln{\frac{x^2 + y^2}{2a^2}}' title='\tan^{-1}(\frac{y}{x}) = \frac{\pi}{4} + \frac{1}{2}\ln{\frac{x^2 + y^2}{2a^2}}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>同學，試用繪圖軟件把上述軌跡畫出來。</p>
</div>]]></content:encoded>
</item>
<item>
<title><![CDATA[拼出 $100]]></title>
<link>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/08/31/number-of-combination-of-forming-100-dollars/</link>
<pubDate>Mon, 31 Aug 2009 12:39:14 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>johnmayhk</dc:creator>
<guid>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/08/31/number-of-combination-of-forming-100-dollars/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[老題：利用面值 $10，$20 及 $50 紙幣若干張，要拼出 $100，問有多少組合方式？ 可以拿 2 張 $50 紙幣，這是一種組合； 可以拿 3 張 $10，1 張 $20 及 1 張 $50，]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p><img src="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/files/2009/08/100-hk-dollar.jpg"></p>
<p>老題：利用面值 $10，$20 及 $50 紙幣若干張，要拼出 $100，問有多少組合方式？</p>
<p>可以拿 2 張 $50 紙幣，這是一種組合；<br />
可以拿 3 張 $10，1 張 $20 及 1 張 $50，這是另一種組合；<br />
&#8230;&#8230;</p>
<p>那麼，共有多少種可能的組合？</p>
<p>這篇為承接昨天的發帖<!--more-->而寫的例。是舊技巧，高手見諒。</p>
<p>對 $10 紙幣，我們考慮冪級數</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=1+%2B+x%5E%7B10%7D+%2B+x%5E%7B20%7D+%2B+x%5E%7B30%7D+%2B+%5Cdots&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='1 + x^{10} + x^{20} + x^{30} + \dots' title='1 + x^{10} + x^{20} + x^{30} + \dots' class='latex' /></p>
<p>我們觀察 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x' title='x' class='latex' /> 的指數，便可對應 $10 紙幣的數目，即</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E%7B20%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^{20}' title='x^{20}' class='latex' /> 代表 2 張 $10 紙幣；<br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E%7B30%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^{30}' title='x^{30}' class='latex' /> 代表 3 張 $10 紙幣；<br />
&#8230;&#8230;</p>
<p>類似地，</p>
<p>對 $20 及 $50 紙幣，我們分別考慮冪級數</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=1+%2B+x%5E%7B20%7D+%2B+x%5E%7B40%7D+%2B+x%5E%7B60%7D+%2B+%5Cdots&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='1 + x^{20} + x^{40} + x^{60} + \dots' title='1 + x^{20} + x^{40} + x^{60} + \dots' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=1+%2B+x%5E%7B50%7D+%2B+x%5E%7B100%7D+%2B+x%5E%7B150%7D+%2B+%5Cdots&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='1 + x^{50} + x^{100} + x^{150} + \dots' title='1 + x^{50} + x^{100} + x^{150} + \dots' class='latex' /></p>
<p>把上面提及的三個級數相乘，得</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%281+%2B+x%5E%7B10%7D+%2B+x%5E%7B20%7D+%2B+x%5E%7B30%7D+%2B+%5Cdots%29%281+%2B+x%5E%7B20%7D+%2B+x%5E%7B40%7D+%2B+%5Cdots%29%281+%2B+x%5E%7B50%7D+%2B+x%5E%7B100%7D%5Cdots%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(1 + x^{10} + x^{20} + x^{30} + \dots)(1 + x^{20} + x^{40} + \dots)(1 + x^{50} + x^{100}\dots)' title='(1 + x^{10} + x^{20} + x^{30} + \dots)(1 + x^{20} + x^{40} + \dots)(1 + x^{50} + x^{100}\dots)' class='latex' /> &#8211; - &#8211; - &#8211; - (*)</p>
<p>同學，想像（是，想像而已）把上式拆開（或曰「爆開」expand），每項皆由三個括弧，分別抽出一項相乘而得。比如，</p>
<p>第一個括弧抽出 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E%7B30%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^{30}' title='x^{30}' class='latex' />；<br />
第二個括弧抽出 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E%7B20%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^{20}' title='x^{20}' class='latex' />；<br />
第三個括弧抽出 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E%7B50%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^{50}' title='x^{50}' class='latex' />；</p>
<p>相乘之，得</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E%7B30%7D+%5Ctimes+x%5E%7B20%7D+%5Ctimes+x%5E%7B50%7D+%3D+x%5E%7B30+%2B+20+%2B+50%7D+%3D+x%5E%7B100%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^{30} \times x^{20} \times x^{50} = x^{30 + 20 + 50} = x^{100}' title='x^{30} \times x^{20} \times x^{50} = x^{30 + 20 + 50} = x^{100}' class='latex' /> &#8211; - &#8211; - &#8211; - (**)</p>
<p>看看當中的意義：</p>
<p>第一個括弧抽出 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E%7B30%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^{30}' title='x^{30}' class='latex' />，相當於拿出 3 張 $10 紙幣；<br />
第二個括弧抽出 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E%7B20%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^{20}' title='x^{20}' class='latex' />，相當於拿出 1 張 $20 紙幣；<br />
第三個括弧抽出 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E%7B50%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^{50}' title='x^{50}' class='latex' />，相當於拿出 1 張 $50 紙幣；</p>
<p>總面值是 3*$10 + 1*$20 + 1*$50 = $100；而 100，正是 (**) 中 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x' title='x' class='latex' /> 的指數。</p>
<p>這樣，(**) 代表著一種拼出 $100 的組合方式（即 3 張 $10，1 張 $20 及 1 張 $50）。</p>
<p>而 (**) 不過是 (*) 拆開後的某一項。</p>
<p>即 (*) 拆出一項 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E%7B100%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^{100}' title='x^{100}' class='latex' />，代表著一種拼出 $100 的組合方式。</p>
<p>那麼，若 (*) 可以拆出 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n' title='n' class='latex' /> 項 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E%7B100%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^{100}' title='x^{100}' class='latex' />，即代表著 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n' title='n' class='latex' /> 種拼出 $100 的組合方式。</p>
<p>但若 (*) 可以拆出 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n' title='n' class='latex' /> 項 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E%7B100%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^{100}' title='x^{100}' class='latex' />，把它們加起來，得 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=nx%5E%7B100%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='nx^{100}' title='nx^{100}' class='latex' />。</p>
<p>也就是說，(*) 拆開後，<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E%7B100%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^{100}' title='x^{100}' class='latex' /> 的係數就是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n' title='n' class='latex' />，亦即是說</p>
<p>「有多少種拼出 $100 的組合方式，就等於 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E%7B100%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^{100}' title='x^{100}' class='latex' /> 的係數」。</p>
<p>但如何求 (*) 中 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E%7B100%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^{100}' title='x^{100}' class='latex' /> 的係數？昨天也談過。</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%281+%2B+x%5E%7B10%7D+%2B+x%5E%7B20%7D+%2B+x%5E%7B30%7D+%2B+%5Cdots%29%281+%2B+x%5E%7B20%7D+%2B+x%5E%7B40%7D+%2B+%5Cdots%29%281+%2B+x%5E%7B50%7D+%2B+x%5E%7B100%7D%5Cdots%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(1 + x^{10} + x^{20} + x^{30} + \dots)(1 + x^{20} + x^{40} + \dots)(1 + x^{50} + x^{100}\dots)' title='(1 + x^{10} + x^{20} + x^{30} + \dots)(1 + x^{20} + x^{40} + \dots)(1 + x^{50} + x^{100}\dots)' class='latex' /> &#8211; - &#8211; - &#8211; - (*)</p>
<p>可變為</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%281+-+x%5E%7B10%7D%29%281+-+x%5E%7B20%7D%29%281+-+x%5E%7B50%7D%29%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{1}{(1 - x^{10})(1 - x^{20})(1 - x^{50})}' title='\frac{1}{(1 - x^{10})(1 - x^{20})(1 - x^{50})}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>之後就是拆部份分式，但直接考慮上式的部份分式，太艱鉅，我們考慮簡單一點的情況：</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%281+-+y%29%281+-+y%5E2%29%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{1}{(1 - y)(1 - y^2)}' title='\frac{1}{(1 - y)(1 - y^2)}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>不難得到</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%281+-+y%29%281+-+y%5E2%29%7D+%5Cequiv+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B4%281+-+y%29%7D+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%281+-+y%29%5E2%7D+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B4%281+%2B+y%29%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{1}{(1 - y)(1 - y^2)} \equiv \frac{1}{4(1 - y)} + \frac{1}{2(1 - y)^2} + \frac{1}{4(1 + y)}' title='\frac{1}{(1 - y)(1 - y^2)} \equiv \frac{1}{4(1 - y)} + \frac{1}{2(1 - y)^2} + \frac{1}{4(1 + y)}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>運用 sum of G.S.，得知</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B4%281+-+y%29%7D+%5Cequiv+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B4%7D%281+%2B+y+%2B+y%5E2+%2B+y%5E3+%2B+%5Cdots%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{1}{4(1 - y)} \equiv \frac{1}{4}(1 + y + y^2 + y^3 + \dots)' title='\frac{1}{4(1 - y)} \equiv \frac{1}{4}(1 + y + y^2 + y^3 + \dots)' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%281+-+y%29%5E2%7D+%5Cequiv+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%281+%2B+2y+%2B+3y%5E2+%2B+4y%5E3+%2B+%5Cdots%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{1}{2(1 - y)^2} \equiv \frac{1}{2}(1 + 2y + 3y^2 + 4y^3 + \dots)' title='\frac{1}{2(1 - y)^2} \equiv \frac{1}{2}(1 + 2y + 3y^2 + 4y^3 + \dots)' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B4%281+%2B+y%29%7D+%5Cequiv+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B4%7D%281+-+y+%2B+y%5E2+-+y%5E3+%2B+%5Cdots%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{1}{4(1 + y)} \equiv \frac{1}{4}(1 - y + y^2 - y^3 + \dots)' title='\frac{1}{4(1 + y)} \equiv \frac{1}{4}(1 - y + y^2 - y^3 + \dots)' class='latex' /></p>
<p>於是</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%281+-+y%29%281+-+y%5E2%29%7D+%5Cequiv+1+%2B+y+%2B+2y%5E2+%2B+2y%5E3+%2B+3y%5E4+%2B+3y%5E5+%2B+%5Cdots&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{1}{(1 - y)(1 - y^2)} \equiv 1 + y + 2y^2 + 2y^3 + 3y^4 + 3y^5 + \dots' title='\frac{1}{(1 - y)(1 - y^2)} \equiv 1 + y + 2y^2 + 2y^3 + 3y^4 + 3y^5 + \dots' class='latex' /></p>
<p>那麼，</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%281+-+x%5E%7B10%7D%29%281+-+x%5E%7B20%7D%29%7D+%5Cequiv+1+%2B+x%5E%7B10%7D+%2B+2x%5E%7B20%7D+%2B+2x%5E%7B30%7D+%2B+3x%5E%7B40%7D+%2B+3x%5E%7B50%7D+%2B+%5Cdots&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{1}{(1 - x^{10})(1 - x^{20})} \equiv 1 + x^{10} + 2x^{20} + 2x^{30} + 3x^{40} + 3x^{50} + \dots' title='\frac{1}{(1 - x^{10})(1 - x^{20})} \equiv 1 + x^{10} + 2x^{20} + 2x^{30} + 3x^{40} + 3x^{50} + \dots' class='latex' /></p>
<p>故此，(*) 變成</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%281+-+x%5E%7B10%7D%29%281+-+x%5E%7B20%7D%29%281+-+x%5E%7B50%7D%29%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{1}{(1 - x^{10})(1 - x^{20})(1 - x^{50})}' title='\frac{1}{(1 - x^{10})(1 - x^{20})(1 - x^{50})}' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=+%5Cequiv+%281+%2B+x%5E%7B10%7D+%2B+2x%5E%7B20%7D+%2B+2x%5E%7B30%7D+%2B+3x%5E%7B40%7D+%2B+3x%5E%7B50%7D+%2B+%5Cdots%29%281+%2B+x%5E%7B50%7D+%2B+x%5E%7B100%7D+%2B+%5Cdots%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt=' \equiv (1 + x^{10} + 2x^{20} + 2x^{30} + 3x^{40} + 3x^{50} + \dots)(1 + x^{50} + x^{100} + \dots)' title=' \equiv (1 + x^{10} + 2x^{20} + 2x^{30} + 3x^{40} + 3x^{50} + \dots)(1 + x^{50} + x^{100} + \dots)' class='latex' /></p>
<p>不難尋求上式中，<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E%7B100%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^{100}' title='x^{100}' class='latex' /> 的係數，即</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=1+%5Ctimes+1+%2B+3+%5Ctimes+1+%2B+6+%5Ctimes+1+%3D+10&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='1 \times 1 + 3 \times 1 + 6 \times 1 = 10' title='1 \times 1 + 3 \times 1 + 6 \times 1 = 10' class='latex' /></p>
<p>即是說有 10 種拼出 $100 的組合方式。</p>
<p>驗證一下：</p>
<table class="MsoTableGrid" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style='border-collapse:collapse;border:none;'>
<tr style='height:16.5pt;'>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border:solid black 1pt;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><b><span lang="EN-US">$10</span></b></p>
</td>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border:solid black 1pt;border-left:none;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><b><span lang="EN-US">$20</span></b></p>
</td>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border:solid black 1pt;border-left:none;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><b><span lang="EN-US">$50</span></b></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:16.5pt;'>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border:solid black 1pt;border-top:none;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">0</span></p>
</td>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid black 1pt;border-right:solid black 1pt;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">0</span></p>
</td>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid black 1pt;border-right:solid black 1pt;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">2</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:16.5pt;'>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border:solid black 1pt;border-top:none;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">1</span></p>
</td>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid black 1pt;border-right:solid black 1pt;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">2</span></p>
</td>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid black 1pt;border-right:solid black 1pt;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">1</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:16.5pt;'>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border:solid black 1pt;border-top:none;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">3</span></p>
</td>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid black 1pt;border-right:solid black 1pt;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">1</span></p>
</td>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid black 1pt;border-right:solid black 1pt;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">1</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:16.5pt;'>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border:solid black 1pt;border-top:none;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">5</span></p>
</td>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid black 1pt;border-right:solid black 1pt;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">0</span></p>
</td>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid black 1pt;border-right:solid black 1pt;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">1</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:16.5pt;'>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border:solid black 1pt;border-top:none;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">0</span></p>
</td>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid black 1pt;border-right:solid black 1pt;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">5</span></p>
</td>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid black 1pt;border-right:solid black 1pt;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">0</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:16.5pt;'>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border:solid black 1pt;border-top:none;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">2</span></p>
</td>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid black 1pt;border-right:solid black 1pt;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">4</span></p>
</td>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid black 1pt;border-right:solid black 1pt;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">0</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:16.5pt;'>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border:solid black 1pt;border-top:none;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">4</span></p>
</td>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid black 1pt;border-right:solid black 1pt;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">3</span></p>
</td>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid black 1pt;border-right:solid black 1pt;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">0</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:16.5pt;'>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border:solid black 1pt;border-top:none;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">6</span></p>
</td>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid black 1pt;border-right:solid black 1pt;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">2</span></p>
</td>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid black 1pt;border-right:solid black 1pt;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">0</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:16.5pt;'>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border:solid black 1pt;border-top:none;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">8</span></p>
</td>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid black 1pt;border-right:solid black 1pt;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">1</span></p>
</td>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid black 1pt;border-right:solid black 1pt;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">0</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style='height:16.5pt;'>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border:solid black 1pt;border-top:none;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">10</span></p>
</td>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid black 1pt;border-right:solid black 1pt;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">0</span></p>
</td>
<td width="72" nowrap valign="top" style='width:54pt;border-top:none;border-left:none;border-bottom:solid black 1pt;border-right:solid black 1pt;height:16.5pt;padding:0 5.4pt;'>
<p class="MsoNormal" align="center" style='text-align:center;'><span lang="EN-US">0</span></p>
</td>
</tr>
</table>
<p>數一數，共 10 個組合方式。</p>
<p>同學你或在取笑這個方法：「就咁數」仲快。不錯，這個特例是，但上述的方法是值得留意的：因為它是有系統的方法。</p>
</div>]]></content:encoded>
</item>
<item>
<title><![CDATA[Finding general term by generating function]]></title>
<link>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/08/30/finding-general-term-by-generating-function/</link>
<pubDate>Sun, 30 Aug 2009 11:14:09 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>johnmayhk</dc:creator>
<guid>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/08/30/finding-general-term-by-generating-function/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[It is extremely easy to set up questions on number pattern, like 1, 3, 8, 19, 42, 89, ? for more det]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p><font face='georgia'>It is extremely easy to set up questions on number pattern, like</p>
<p>1, 3, 8, 19, 42, 89, ?</p>
<p>for more details, we may tabulate the question as:</p>
<p><img src="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/files/2009/08/20090829gif01.jpg"></p>
<p>the question is, when <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n+%3D+6&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n = 6' title='n = 6' class='latex' />, what is the value of <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_n' title='a_n' class='latex' />?</p>
<p>My first reply to such kind of question is</p>
<p>&#8220;no need to do&#8221;<!--more--></p>
<p>because, even we know the first several terms in a number sequence, like</p>
<p>1, 3, 8, 19, 42, 89</p>
<p>then ANY number can be the next one!</p>
<p>[SBA]<br />
Please give examples to illustrate the statement above.</p>
<p>However, if we restrict the question a bit, it may be more meaningful.</p>
<p>For instance, if the sequence above satisfying the following relation:</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_n+%3D+ha_%7Bn+-+1%7D+%2B+kn&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_n = ha_{n - 1} + kn' title='a_n = ha_{n - 1} + kn' class='latex' /> (<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n+%3D+1%2C2%2C+%5Cdots&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n = 1,2, \dots' title='n = 1,2, \dots' class='latex' />)</p>
<p>where <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=h%2C+k&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='h, k' title='h, k' class='latex' /> are constants.</p>
<p>Then, to determine the values of <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=h%2C+k&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='h, k' title='h, k' class='latex' /> will be a question for junior form students.</p>
<p>Okay, let me illustrate that SAME materials can be used in different levels.</p>
<p>（Level 1）For form 2 or 3 students, the question is about solving simultaneous equations.</p>
<p>Once we know the relation <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_n+%3D+ha_%7Bn+-+1%7D+%2B+kn&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_n = ha_{n - 1} + kn' title='a_n = ha_{n - 1} + kn' class='latex' />,</p>
<p>put <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n+%3D+1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n = 1' title='n = 1' class='latex' />, <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=3+%3D+h+%2B+k&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='3 = h + k' title='3 = h + k' class='latex' />;<br />
put <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n+%3D+2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n = 2' title='n = 2' class='latex' />, <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=8+%3D+3h+%2B+2k&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='8 = 3h + 2k' title='8 = 3h + 2k' class='latex' />;</p>
<p>it is easy to have <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=h+%3D+2%2C+k+%3D+1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='h = 2, k = 1' title='h = 2, k = 1' class='latex' />, and thus <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_n+%3D+2a_%7Bn+-+1%7D+%2B+n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_n = 2a_{n - 1} + n' title='a_n = 2a_{n - 1} + n' class='latex' />.</p>
<p>（Level 2）For form 1 students, they may not know how to solve simultaneous equations and it should be set in the way that they could solve it by just observing the pattern and do some induction.</p>
<p>As for example, we add two more columns <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_%7Bn+%2B+1%7D+-+n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_{n + 1} - n' title='a_{n + 1} - n' class='latex' /> and <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=2a_n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='2a_n' title='2a_n' class='latex' />, </p>
<p><img src="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/files/2009/08/20090829gif02.jpg"></p>
<p>Form 1 students, could you identify the relation between <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_%7Bn+%2B+1%7D+-+n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_{n + 1} - n' title='a_{n + 1} - n' class='latex' /> and <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=2a_n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='2a_n' title='2a_n' class='latex' />?</p>
<p>Could you give an equation connecting <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_%7Bn+%2B+1%7D+-+n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_{n + 1} - n' title='a_{n + 1} - n' class='latex' /> and <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=2a_n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='2a_n' title='2a_n' class='latex' />?</p>
<p>May be, you could write down</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_%7Bn+%2B+1%7D+-+n+-+1+%3D+2a_n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_{n + 1} - n - 1 = 2a_n' title='a_{n + 1} - n - 1 = 2a_n' class='latex' /></p>
<p>May be, it is a dream&#8230;</p>
<p>Anyway, we can conclude that</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_%7Bn+%2B+1%7D+%3D+2a_n+%2B+n+%2B+1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_{n + 1} = 2a_n + n + 1' title='a_{n + 1} = 2a_n + n + 1' class='latex' />（<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n+%3D+0%2C+1%2C+%5Cdots&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n = 0, 1, \dots' title='n = 0, 1, \dots' class='latex' />）</p>
<p>or</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_n+%3D+2a_%7Bn+-+1%7D+%2B+n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_n = 2a_{n - 1} + n' title='a_n = 2a_{n - 1} + n' class='latex' />（<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n+%3D+1%2C+2%2C+%5Cdots&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n = 1, 2, \dots' title='n = 1, 2, \dots' class='latex' />）</p>
<p>Okay, it is the time to jump to another level.</p>
<p>We are not satisfying with the recurrence relation above, could we find out the explicit expression of the general term <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_n' title='a_n' class='latex' />?</p>
<p>Some years ago, I had introduced generating function（生成函數）in my forum which is a powerful tool of finding general terms.</p>
<p>The procedure is as follows.</p>
<p>Starting something &#8216;from God&#8217;, we consider a power series（冪級數）with <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_n' title='a_n' class='latex' /> as coefficients（係數）, i.e.</p>
<p>Let <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=G+%5Cequiv+a_0+%2B+a_1x+%2B+a_2x%5E2+%2B+a_3x%5E3+%2B+%5Cdots&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='G \equiv a_0 + a_1x + a_2x^2 + a_3x^3 + \dots' title='G \equiv a_0 + a_1x + a_2x^2 + a_3x^3 + \dots' class='latex' /></p>
<p>This <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=G&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='G' title='G' class='latex' /> is an example of generating function.</p>
<p>Finding <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_n' title='a_n' class='latex' /> is exactly the same as finding the coefficients of <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=G&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='G' title='G' class='latex' />.</p>
<p>If we can determine <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=G&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='G' title='G' class='latex' /> explicitly, the problem will be solved.</p>
<p>But, how?</p>
<p>Let&#8217;s make use of the recurrence relation <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_n+%3D+2a_%7Bn+-+1%7D+%2B+n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_n = 2a_{n - 1} + n' title='a_n = 2a_{n - 1} + n' class='latex' />（<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n+%3D+1%2C+2%2C+%5Cdots&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n = 1, 2, \dots' title='n = 1, 2, \dots' class='latex' />）.</p>
<p>Students, think about that, how do we make the coefficients in the power series to be involving something like <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=2a_%7Bn+-+1%7D+%2B+n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='2a_{n - 1} + n' title='2a_{n - 1} + n' class='latex' />? Urm, intentionally, try to make the change by considering</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%282a_0+%2B+1%29+%2B+%282a_1+%2B+2%29x+%2B+%282a_2+%2B+3%29x%5E2+%2B+%282a_3+%2B+4%29x%5E3+%2B+%5Cdots&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(2a_0 + 1) + (2a_1 + 2)x + (2a_2 + 3)x^2 + (2a_3 + 4)x^3 + \dots' title='(2a_0 + 1) + (2a_1 + 2)x + (2a_2 + 3)x^2 + (2a_3 + 4)x^3 + \dots' class='latex' /> &#8211; - &#8211; - &#8211; - (*)</p>
<p>just a bit rearrangement, yield</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=2%28a_0+%2B+a_1x+%2B+a_2x%5E2+%2B+a_3x%5E3+%2B+%5Cdots%29+%2B+%281+%2B+2x+%2B+3x%5E2+%2B+4x%5E3+%2B+%5Cdots%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='2(a_0 + a_1x + a_2x^2 + a_3x^3 + \dots) + (1 + 2x + 3x^2 + 4x^3 + \dots)' title='2(a_0 + a_1x + a_2x^2 + a_3x^3 + \dots) + (1 + 2x + 3x^2 + 4x^3 + \dots)' class='latex' /></p>
<p>（Here, students you may point out that the series should be absolutely convergent to guarantee that there is no change in the limit after a rearrangement. Yes, you are right. I remember when I set up similar questions in a school examination paper, my panel head required me to give clearly instruction, then I gave <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%26%23124%3Bx%26%23124%3B+%26%2360%3B+1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='&#124;x&#124; &lt; 1' title='&#124;x&#124; &lt; 1' class='latex' /> as a condition. But, the use of generating function is something about the &#8216;format&#8217;, not something about analysis. Throughout the following discussion, we will assume that the series is convergent absolutely on certain domain.）</p>
<p>and the above will become</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=2G+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%281+-+x%29%5E2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='2G + \frac{1}{(1 - x)^2}' title='2G + \frac{1}{(1 - x)^2}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>on the reason that</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=1+%2B+x+%2B+x%5E2+%2B+x%5E3+%2B+x%5E4+%2B+%5Cdots+%3D+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B1+-+x%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='1 + x + x^2 + x^3 + x^4 + \dots = \frac{1}{1 - x}' title='1 + x + x^2 + x^3 + x^4 + \dots = \frac{1}{1 - x}' class='latex' /> （sum of G.S.）</p>
<p>Now, differentiate the above with respect to <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x' title='x' class='latex' />, get</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=1+%2B+2x+%2B+3x%5E2+%2B+4x%5E3+%2B+%5Cdots+%3D+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%281+-+x%29%5E2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='1 + 2x + 3x^2 + 4x^3 + \dots = \frac{1}{(1 - x)^2}' title='1 + 2x + 3x^2 + 4x^3 + \dots = \frac{1}{(1 - x)^2}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>[SBA]<br />
Is it always true in saying that <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bd%7D%7Bdx%7D%28f_1%28x%29+%2B+f_2%28x%29+%2B+%5Cdots%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{d}{dx}(f_1(x) + f_2(x) + \dots)' title='\frac{d}{dx}(f_1(x) + f_2(x) + \dots)' class='latex' /> = <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bdf_1%7D%7Bdx%7D+%2B+%5Cfrac%7Bdf_2%7D%7Bdx%7D+%2B+%5Cdots&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{df_1}{dx} + \frac{df_2}{dx} + \dots' title='\frac{df_1}{dx} + \frac{df_2}{dx} + \dots' class='latex' />？</p>
<p>Thus, (*) can be expressed as</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=2G+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%281+-+x%29%5E2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='2G + \frac{1}{(1 - x)^2}' title='2G + \frac{1}{(1 - x)^2}' class='latex' /> &#8211; - &#8211; - &#8211; - (**)</p>
<p>On the other hand, the reason why we made the coefficients of <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=G&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='G' title='G' class='latex' /> to be <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=2a_%7Bn+-+1%7D+%2B+n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='2a_{n - 1} + n' title='2a_{n - 1} + n' class='latex' /> is for converting them into <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_n' title='a_n' class='latex' />, thus (*) is actually</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_1+%2B+a_2x+%2B+a_3x%5E2+%2B+a_4x%5E3+%2B+%5Cdots&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_1 + a_2x + a_3x^2 + a_4x^3 + \dots' title='a_1 + a_2x + a_3x^2 + a_4x^3 + \dots' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cequiv+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%7D%28a_1x+%2B+a_2x%5E2+%2B+a_3x%5E3+%2B+a_4x%5E4+%2B+%5Cdots%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\equiv \frac{1}{x}(a_1x + a_2x^2 + a_3x^3 + a_4x^4 + \dots)' title='\equiv \frac{1}{x}(a_1x + a_2x^2 + a_3x^3 + a_4x^4 + \dots)' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cequiv+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%7D%28a_0+%2B+a_1x+%2B+a_2x%5E2+%2B+a_3x%5E3+%2B+a_4x%5E4+%2B+%5Cdots+-+a_0%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\equiv \frac{1}{x}(a_0 + a_1x + a_2x^2 + a_3x^3 + a_4x^4 + \dots - a_0)' title='\equiv \frac{1}{x}(a_0 + a_1x + a_2x^2 + a_3x^3 + a_4x^4 + \dots - a_0)' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cequiv+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%7D%28G+-+1%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\equiv \frac{1}{x}(G - 1)' title='\equiv \frac{1}{x}(G - 1)' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Compare with (**), we have</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=2G+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%281+-+x%29%5E2%7D+%5Cequiv+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%7D%28G+-+1%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='2G + \frac{1}{(1 - x)^2} \equiv \frac{1}{x}(G - 1)' title='2G + \frac{1}{(1 - x)^2} \equiv \frac{1}{x}(G - 1)' class='latex' /></p>
<p>（Level 3）Now, it is something about form 3 and 4 students, determine the expression of <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=G&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='G' title='G' class='latex' />.</p>
<p>That is</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=G+%5Cequiv+%5Cfrac%7Bx%5E2+-+x+%2B+1%7D%7B%281+-+2x%29%281+-+x%29%5E2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='G \equiv \frac{x^2 - x + 1}{(1 - 2x)(1 - x)^2}' title='G \equiv \frac{x^2 - x + 1}{(1 - 2x)(1 - x)^2}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Okay, form 3 or 4 students, this is only a question about &#34;making <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=G&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='G' title='G' class='latex' /> as the subject&#34;, try to verify it on your own.</p>
<p>（Level 4）Now, we need senior form secondary mathematics. How to find coefficients of <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=G&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='G' title='G' class='latex' />? It involves two topics: partial fractions（部份分式）and sum of G.S.</p>
<p>For form 6 and 7 students, try to resolve <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bx%5E2+-+x+%2B+1%7D%7B%281+-+2x%29%281+-+x%29%5E2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{x^2 - x + 1}{(1 - 2x)(1 - x)^2}' title='\frac{x^2 - x + 1}{(1 - 2x)(1 - x)^2}' class='latex' /> into partial fractions. I urge you to solve it on your own vividly as your revision.</p>
<p>The answer is</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=G+%5Cequiv+%5Cfrac%7B3%7D%7B1+-+2x%7D+-+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B1+-+x%7D+-+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%281+-+x%29%5E2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='G \equiv \frac{3}{1 - 2x} - \frac{1}{1 - x} - \frac{1}{(1 - x)^2}' title='G \equiv \frac{3}{1 - 2x} - \frac{1}{1 - x} - \frac{1}{(1 - x)^2}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Now, form 5 level: sum of G.S., i.e.</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B1+-+x%7D+%5Cequiv+1+%2B+x+%2B+x%5E2+%2B+x%5E3+%2B+%5Cdots&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{1}{1 - x} \equiv 1 + x + x^2 + x^3 + \dots' title='\frac{1}{1 - x} \equiv 1 + x + x^2 + x^3 + \dots' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7B2%7D%7B1+-+2x%7D+%5Cequiv+2%281+%2B+2x+%2B+%282x%29%5E2+%2B+%282x%29%5E3+%2B+%5Cdots%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{2}{1 - 2x} \equiv 2(1 + 2x + (2x)^2 + (2x)^3 + \dots)' title='\frac{2}{1 - 2x} \equiv 2(1 + 2x + (2x)^2 + (2x)^3 + \dots)' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%281+-+x%29%5E2%7D+%5Cequiv+1+%2B+2x+%2B+3x%5E2+%2B+4x%5E3+%2B+%5Cdots&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{1}{(1 - x)^2} \equiv 1 + 2x + 3x^2 + 4x^3 + \dots' title='\frac{1}{(1 - x)^2} \equiv 1 + 2x + 3x^2 + 4x^3 + \dots' class='latex' /></p>
<p>thus</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=G&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='G' title='G' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cequiv+%283%281+%2B+2x+%2B+%282x%29%5E2+%2B+%282x%29%5E3+%2B+%5Cdots%29+-+%281+%2B+x+%2B+x%5E2+%2B+x%5E3+%2B+%5Cdots%29+-+%281+%2B+2x+%2B+3x%5E2+%2B+4x%5E3+%2B+%5Cdots%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\equiv (3(1 + 2x + (2x)^2 + (2x)^3 + \dots) - (1 + x + x^2 + x^3 + \dots) - (1 + 2x + 3x^2 + 4x^3 + \dots)' title='\equiv (3(1 + 2x + (2x)^2 + (2x)^3 + \dots) - (1 + x + x^2 + x^3 + \dots) - (1 + 2x + 3x^2 + 4x^3 + \dots)' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cequiv+%283+-+2%29+%2B+%283%282%29+-+3%29x+%2B+%283%282%5E2%29+-+4%29x%5E2+%2B+%283%282%5E3%29+-+5%29x%5E3+%2B+%5Cdots&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\equiv (3 - 2) + (3(2) - 3)x + (3(2^2) - 4)x^2 + (3(2^3) - 5)x^3 + \dots' title='\equiv (3 - 2) + (3(2) - 3)x + (3(2^2) - 4)x^2 + (3(2^3) - 5)x^3 + \dots' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Behold, the pattern of coeffcients of each term can be identified clearly. The coefficient of <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5En&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^n' title='x^n' class='latex' /> is <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=3%282%5En%29+-+%28n+%2B+2%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='3(2^n) - (n + 2)' title='3(2^n) - (n + 2)' class='latex' />, and also the coefficients of <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5En&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^n' title='x^n' class='latex' /> is <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_n' title='a_n' class='latex' /> as set; thus</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_n+%3D+3%282%5En%29+-+n+-+2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_n = 3(2^n) - n - 2' title='a_n = 3(2^n) - n - 2' class='latex' /> &#8211; - &#8211; - &#8211; - (***)</p>
<p>Go back to the original question, that is, evaluating <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_6&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_6' title='a_6' class='latex' />. Of course, we may make use of the recurrence relation <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_n+%3D+2a_%7Bn+-+1%7D+%2B+n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_n = 2a_{n - 1} + n' title='a_n = 2a_{n - 1} + n' class='latex' />, obtaining</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_6+%3D+2a_5+%2B+6+%3D+2+%5Ctimes+89+%2B+6+%3D+184&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_6 = 2a_5 + 6 = 2 \times 89 + 6 = 184' title='a_6 = 2a_5 + 6 = 2 \times 89 + 6 = 184' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Or, we may put <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n+%3D+6&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n = 6' title='n = 6' class='latex' /> into (***), obtaining <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_6+%3D+3%282%5E6%29+-+6+-+2+%3D+184&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_6 = 3(2^6) - 6 - 2 = 184' title='a_6 = 3(2^6) - 6 - 2 = 184' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Yes, using the recurrence relation is easier, however, if I ask you to find <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_%7B2009%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_{2009}' title='a_{2009}' class='latex' />, it may be better to use (***).</p>
<p>Finished? No, being a mathematics teacher, I wanna have some ideas of setting questions. Now, based on the materials above, I can set up at least 2 M.I. questions.</p>
<p>1. Let <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_0+%3D+1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_0 = 1' title='a_0 = 1' class='latex' />, <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_n+%3D+2a_%7Bn+-+1%7D+%2B+n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_n = 2a_{n - 1} + n' title='a_n = 2a_{n - 1} + n' class='latex' /> (<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n+%3D+1%2C+2%2C+%5Cdots&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n = 1, 2, \dots' title='n = 1, 2, \dots' class='latex' />). Prove by mathematical induction that <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_n+%3D+3%282%5En%29+-+n+-+2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_n = 3(2^n) - n - 2' title='a_n = 3(2^n) - n - 2' class='latex' /> for any non negative integer <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n' title='n' class='latex' />. (Trivial!)</p>
<p>To set up an &#39;advanced&#39; M.I. question, we may observe the first serval terms in {<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_n' title='a_n' class='latex' />} by using the recurrence relation:</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_0+%3D+1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_0 = 1' title='a_0 = 1' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_1+%3D+2%281%29+%2B+1+%3D+3&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_1 = 2(1) + 1 = 3' title='a_1 = 2(1) + 1 = 3' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_2+%3D+2%283%29+%2B+2+%3D+2%5E3&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_2 = 2(3) + 2 = 2^3' title='a_2 = 2(3) + 2 = 2^3' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_3+%3D+2%282%5E3%29+%2B+3+%3D+2%5E4+%2B+3&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_3 = 2(2^3) + 3 = 2^4 + 3' title='a_3 = 2(2^3) + 3 = 2^4 + 3' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_4+%3D+2%5E5+%2B+2%2A3+%2B+4&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_4 = 2^5 + 2*3 + 4' title='a_4 = 2^5 + 2*3 + 4' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_5+%3D+2%5E6+%2B+2%5E2%2A3+%2B+2%2A4+%2B+5&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_5 = 2^6 + 2^2*3 + 2*4 + 5' title='a_5 = 2^6 + 2^2*3 + 2*4 + 5' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_6+%3D+2%5E7+%2B+2%5E3%2A3+%2B+2%5E2%2A4+%2B+2%2A5+%2B+6&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_6 = 2^7 + 2^3*3 + 2^2*4 + 2*5 + 6' title='a_6 = 2^7 + 2^3*3 + 2^2*4 + 2*5 + 6' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdots&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\dots' title='\dots' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Hence we can create another question:</p>
<p>2. Let <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_3+%3D+19&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_3 = 19' title='a_3 = 19' class='latex' /> and <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_n+%3D+2%5E%7Bn%2B1%7D+%2B+3%282%5E%7Bn-3%7D%29+%2B+4%282%5E%7Bn-4%7D%29+%2B+5%282%5E%7Bn-5%7D%29+%2B+%5Cdots+%2B+2%28n-1%29+%2B+n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_n = 2^{n+1} + 3(2^{n-3}) + 4(2^{n-4}) + 5(2^{n-5}) + \dots + 2(n-1) + n' title='a_n = 2^{n+1} + 3(2^{n-3}) + 4(2^{n-4}) + 5(2^{n-5}) + \dots + 2(n-1) + n' class='latex' /> (for <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n+%3D+3%2C4%2C+%5Cdots&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n = 3,4, \dots' title='n = 3,4, \dots' class='latex' />). Prove by mathematical induction that <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_n+%3D+3%282%5En%29+-+n+-+2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_n = 3(2^n) - n - 2' title='a_n = 3(2^n) - n - 2' class='latex' /> for all integer <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n+%5Cge+3&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n \ge 3' title='n \ge 3' class='latex' />.</p>
<p>Finally, students, you may find the method of using generating function is a bit clumsy, especially for this particular question. You may have smarter methods to solve for <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_n' title='a_n' class='latex' />. However, all I want is to introduce the method of using generating function and it is known that some questions can ONLY be solved by using generating function. Hope to share more next, bye bye!</font></p>
</div>]]></content:encoded>
</item>
<item>
<title><![CDATA[請傳媒停止把10A狀元會考生當成新聞!]]></title>
<link>http://newnewhkcc1976.wordpress.com/2009/07/30/%e8%ab%8b%e5%82%b3%e5%aa%92%e5%81%9c%e6%ad%a2%e6%8a%8a10a%e7%8b%80%e5%85%83%e6%9c%83%e8%80%83%e7%94%9f%e7%95%b6%e6%88%90%e6%96%b0%e8%81%9e/</link>
<pubDate>Thu, 30 Jul 2009 10:59:20 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>newnewhkcc1976</dc:creator>
<guid>http://newnewhkcc1976.wordpress.com/2009/07/30/%e8%ab%8b%e5%82%b3%e5%aa%92%e5%81%9c%e6%ad%a2%e6%8a%8a10a%e7%8b%80%e5%85%83%e6%9c%83%e8%80%83%e7%94%9f%e7%95%b6%e6%88%90%e6%96%b0%e8%81%9e/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[作者2007年寫去南華早報及香港虎報的電郵。 編緝你好, 現在是香港中學會考放榜，我寫信來希望貴報不要把拿10A狀元的消息來充塞頭條，因為如此的頭條會對香港社會做成相當不良的影響。自1997年以來，香]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>作者2007年寫去南華早報及香港虎報的電郵。</p>
<p>編緝你好,<br />
現在是香港中學會考放榜，我寫信來希望貴報不要把拿10A狀元的消息來充塞頭條，因為如此的頭條會對香港社會做成相當不良的影響。自1997年以來，香港 教育署不是年年都提倡「求學為求知，求學不是為了求分數」，但是不少的香港傳媒都懶理香港教育的新宗旨，照樣每年硬銷一次10A會考生的神話，但沒有考慮 到這到底代表了什麼意思呢?這是不是說這班10A會考生都是香港社會的中流抵柱，所以香港社會不可能沒有他們一直以來對香港的貢獻呢?這是不是說一向以來 都這班10A會考生都是在不斷改善香港的政治/經濟/社會環境?這至少是不是說一向以來都這班10A會考生都會飛黃騰達，個個都成富商巨匱，舉足輕重，成 了香港不可或缺的人材?但是恕我孤陋寡聞，我甚少留意到報紙及傳媒在製造完這些三分鐘英雄後有什麼跟進，去檢視一下到底這10A會考考生的會考結果和在現實社會 的成功到底有幾多的關係?<br />
如此一來，傳媒/報紙只製造三分鐘明星而不求甚解，只會加深香港的功利理性主義: 讀書不是為求知識、不是為了不惜一切發掘真相，不是為向自己的理性誠實，而只是為了用任何手段得到成績表上的A，愈多愈好。試問在如此的氛圍下，香港怎可 能產生出像陳易希及霍金博士之類的出類拔萃的人材，令人類的科學及文明大步向前邁進?<br />
所以，我希望貴報盡一個知識份子的良心，不要再傷害反智香港的智性發展了。</p>
<p>謹此敬上<br />
一關心時事的香港市民</p>
</div>]]></content:encoded>
</item>
<item>
<title><![CDATA[計到即存在?]]></title>
<link>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/07/03/does-not-imply-limit-exist/</link>
<pubDate>Fri, 03 Jul 2009 00:41:19 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>johnmayhk</dc:creator>
<guid>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/07/03/does-not-imply-limit-exist/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[初中時教解二次方程，我通常順便說一個無聊的例： = ? 要求出「答案」，我們可設 等號左右兩邊取平方，則 故此 解出 或 （不合），亦即 當然， 的表達有點兒「唔清唔楚」，清楚一點的表達，比如是 即 ]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>初中時教解二次方程，我通常順便說一個無聊的例：</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Csqrt%7B2+%2B+%5Csqrt%7B2+%2B+%5Csqrt%7B2+%2B+%5Csqrt%7B2+%2B+%5Cdots%7D%7D%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \dots}}}}' title='\sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \dots}}}}' class='latex' /> = ?</p>
<p>要求出「答案」，我們可設<!--more--></p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+%5Csqrt%7B2+%2B+%5Csqrt%7B2+%2B+%5Csqrt%7B2+%2B+%5Csqrt%7B2+%2B+%5Cdots%7D%7D%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \dots}}}}' title='x = \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \dots}}}}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>等號左右兩邊取平方，則</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E2+%3D+2+%2B+%5Csqrt%7B2+%2B+%5Csqrt%7B2+%2B+%5Csqrt%7B2+%2B+%5Cdots%7D%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^2 = 2 + \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \dots}}}' title='x^2 = 2 + \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \dots}}}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>故此</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E2+%3D+2+%2B+x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^2 = 2 + x' title='x^2 = 2 + x' class='latex' /></p>
<p>解出 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = 2' title='x = 2' class='latex' /> 或 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+-1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = -1' title='x = -1' class='latex' />（不合），亦即</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Csqrt%7B2+%2B+%5Csqrt%7B2+%2B+%5Csqrt%7B2+%2B+%5Csqrt%7B2+%2B+%5Cdots%7D%7D%7D%7D+%3D+2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \dots}}}} = 2' title='\sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \dots}}}} = 2' class='latex' /></p>
<p>當然，</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Csqrt%7B2+%2B+%5Csqrt%7B2+%2B+%5Csqrt%7B2+%2B+%5Csqrt%7B2+%2B+%5Cdots%7D%7D%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \dots}}}}' title='\sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \dots}}}}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>的表達有點兒「唔清唔楚」，清楚一點的表達，比如是</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cleft+%5C%7B+%5Cbegin%7Barray%7D%7Bll%7D+a_1+%3D+2%5C%5Ca_%7Bn%2B1%7D+%3D+%5Csqrt%7B2+%2B+a_%7Bn%7D%7D+%28n+%5Cin+%5Cmathbb%7BN%7D%29%5Cend%7Barray%7D%5Cright.&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\left \{ \begin{array}{ll} a_1 = 2\\a_{n+1} = \sqrt{2 + a_{n}} (n \in \mathbb{N})\end{array}\right.' title='\left \{ \begin{array}{ll} a_1 = 2\\a_{n+1} = \sqrt{2 + a_{n}} (n \in \mathbb{N})\end{array}\right.' class='latex' /></p>
<p>即</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Csqrt%7B2+%2B+%5Csqrt%7B2+%2B+%5Csqrt%7B2+%2B+%5Csqrt%7B2+%2B+%5Cdots%7D%7D%7D%7D+%3D+%5Clim_%7Bn+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7Da_n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \dots}}}} = \lim_{n \rightarrow \infty}a_n' title='\sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \sqrt{2 + \dots}}}} = \lim_{n \rightarrow \infty}a_n' class='latex' /></p>
<p>中六修純數的同學知道，我們「計」極限時，要先證明極限存在，然後才進行上述「代 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x' title='x' class='latex' />」 的計算。</p>
<p>同學會質疑：「明明已經計到極限出來（像低年級時做的），豈不就說明它存在嗎？為何還要先（比方說，用 monotonic sequence theorem 來）證明極限存在？」</p>
<p>其實所謂「計到」，不一定代表極限存在，舉個例：</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cleft+%5C%7B+%5Cbegin%7Barray%7D%7Bll%7D+b_1+%3D+1%5C%5Cb_%7Bn%2B1%7D+%3D+%5Csqrt%7B1+-+b_n%7D+%28n+%5Cin+%5Cmathbb%7BN%7D%29%5Cend%7Barray%7D%5Cright.&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\left \{ \begin{array}{ll} b_1 = 1\\b_{n+1} = \sqrt{1 - b_n} (n \in \mathbb{N})\end{array}\right.' title='\left \{ \begin{array}{ll} b_1 = 1\\b_{n+1} = \sqrt{1 - b_n} (n \in \mathbb{N})\end{array}\right.' class='latex' /></p>
<p>即</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Csqrt%7B1+-+%5Csqrt%7B1+-+%5Csqrt%7B1+-+%5Cdots%7D%7D%7D+%3D+%5Clim_%7Bn+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7Db_n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\sqrt{1 - \sqrt{1 - \sqrt{1 - \dots}}} = \lim_{n \rightarrow \infty}b_n' title='\sqrt{1 - \sqrt{1 - \sqrt{1 - \dots}}} = \lim_{n \rightarrow \infty}b_n' class='latex' /></p>
<p>如果我們跟隨低年級學的方法，設</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+%5Csqrt%7B1+-+%5Csqrt%7B1+-+%5Csqrt%7B1+-+%5Cdots%7D%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = \sqrt{1 - \sqrt{1 - \sqrt{1 - \dots}}}' title='y = \sqrt{1 - \sqrt{1 - \sqrt{1 - \dots}}}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>取平方，</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y%5E2+%3D+1+-+%5Csqrt%7B1+-+%5Csqrt%7B1+-+%5Cdots%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y^2 = 1 - \sqrt{1 - \sqrt{1 - \dots}}' title='y^2 = 1 - \sqrt{1 - \sqrt{1 - \dots}}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>即</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y%5E2+%3D+1+-+y&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y^2 = 1 - y' title='y^2 = 1 - y' class='latex' /></p>
<p>「計出」 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+%5Cfrac%7B-1+%5Cpm+%5Csqrt%7B5%7D%7D%7B2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = \frac{-1 \pm \sqrt{5}}{2}' title='y = \frac{-1 \pm \sqrt{5}}{2}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>不管哪一個值，總之取其中一個作極限，豈不是說極限存在嗎？</p>
<p>錯！{<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=b_n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='b_n' title='b_n' class='latex' />} 根本是不收斂的，且看</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=b_1+%3D+1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='b_1 = 1' title='b_1 = 1' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=b_2+%3D+%5Csqrt%7B1+-+1%7D+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='b_2 = \sqrt{1 - 1} = 0' title='b_2 = \sqrt{1 - 1} = 0' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=b_3+%3D+%5Csqrt%7B1+-+0%7D+%3D+1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='b_3 = \sqrt{1 - 0} = 1' title='b_3 = \sqrt{1 - 0} = 1' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdots&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\dots' title='\dots' class='latex' /></p>
<p>可見 {<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=b_n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='b_n' title='b_n' class='latex' />} 是發散的。此乃「計到，不一定存在」也。</p>
</div>]]></content:encoded>
</item>
<item>
<title><![CDATA[閒談一些基本東西：導數符號，函數，解釋]]></title>
<link>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/06/26/chatting-basic-notation-function-explanation/</link>
<pubDate>Fri, 26 Jun 2009 03:22:13 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>johnmayhk</dc:creator>
<guid>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/06/26/chatting-basic-notation-function-explanation/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[1. 高階導數的符號 同學問，為何 D 兩次（即求二階導數）的符號是 而不是 　或　？ 記得 CJ 老師曾經出上面的來考同學。 我不知其來源，只是靠估兼無聊地說： 比如求 的導數（w.r.t. x），]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>1. 高階導數的符號</p>
<p>同學問，為何 D 兩次（即求二階導數）的符號是</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bd%5E2y%7D%7Bdx%5E2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}' title='\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>而不是</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bdy%5E2%7D%7Bdx%5E2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{dy^2}{dx^2}' title='\frac{dy^2}{dx^2}' class='latex' />　或　<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bd%5E2y%7D%7Bd%5E2x%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{d^2y}{d^2x}' title='\frac{d^2y}{d^2x}' class='latex' />？<!--more--></p>
<p>記得 CJ 老師曾經出上面的來考同學。</p>
<p>我不知其來源，只是靠估兼無聊地說：</p>
<p>比如求 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y' title='y' class='latex' /> 的導數（w.r.t. x），我們可以表達成 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bd%7D%7Bdx%7Dy&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{d}{dx}y' title='\frac{d}{dx}y' class='latex' />，這個 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bd%7D%7Bdx%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{d}{dx}' title='\frac{d}{dx}' class='latex' /> 可視為運算子（operator）。</p>
<p>求 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y' title='y' class='latex' /> 的二階導數，即 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bd%7D%7Bdx%7D%28%5Cfrac%7Bd%7D%7Bdx%7Dy%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{d}{dx}(\frac{d}{dx}y)' title='\frac{d}{dx}(\frac{d}{dx}y)' class='latex' />，我們可以想像為：運算子作用在 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y' title='y' class='latex' /> 兩次。循運算子的看法，<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bd%7D%7Bdx%7D%28%5Cfrac%7Bd%7D%7Bdx%7Dy%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{d}{dx}(\frac{d}{dx}y)' title='\frac{d}{dx}(\frac{d}{dx}y)' class='latex' /> 可表為 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%28%5Cfrac%7Bd%7D%7Bdx%7D%29%28%5Cfrac%7Bd%7D%7Bdx%7D%29y&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(\frac{d}{dx})(\frac{d}{dx})y' title='(\frac{d}{dx})(\frac{d}{dx})y' class='latex' />，於是，它看起來「好像」「二次方」的運算（當然不是真的二次方啦！），借用一下「二次方」的記法，即 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%28%5Cfrac%7Bd%7D%7Bdx%7D%29%5E2y&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(\frac{d}{dx})^2y' title='(\frac{d}{dx})^2y' class='latex' />，於是自然地，寫它為 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bd%5E2%7D%7Bdx%5E2%7Dy&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{d^2}{dx^2}y' title='\frac{d^2}{dx^2}y' class='latex' />，或曰 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bd%5E2y%7D%7Bdx%5E2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}' title='\frac{d^2y}{dx^2}' class='latex' /> 是也。一般地，由記法 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%28%5Cfrac%7Bd%7D%7Bdx%7D%29%5Eny&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(\frac{d}{dx})^ny' title='(\frac{d}{dx})^ny' class='latex' /> 得 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bd%5Eny%7D%7Bdx%5En%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{d^ny}{dx^n}' title='\frac{d^ny}{dx^n}' class='latex' />。</p>
<p>2. 不定義的函數</p>
<p>有沒有聽過以下的句子？</p>
<p>「證明函數 f 是有定義（well-defined）」<br />
「這個函數 f 沒有定義」<br />
&#8230;</p>
<p>現在中一已經引入函數的概念，同學對函數相信也能了解一二，但上述句子，有沒有問題？</p>
<p>純數課告訴我們，如果關係（relation）f 被稱為函數，那麼 f <b>必然是有定義</b>的。那麼「證明<b>函數</b> f 是有定義」這說法好像有點問題，「這個<b>函數</b> f 沒有定義」也有點奇怪。</p>
<p>比如設 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28%5Cfrac%7Ba%7D%7Bb%7D%2C%5Cfrac%7Bc%7D%7Bd%7D%29+%3D+%5Cfrac%7Ba%2Bc%7D%7Bb%2Bd%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(\frac{a}{b},\frac{c}{d}) = \frac{a+c}{b+d}' title='f(\frac{a}{b},\frac{c}{d}) = \frac{a+c}{b+d}' class='latex' />，其中 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a%2Cb%2Cc%2Cd&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a,b,c,d' title='a,b,c,d' class='latex' /> 為正整數。</p>
<p>這個 f 的運算，就是小學生發明的神奇分數加法！這是學分數加法時的一個「難點」。</p>
<p>看看 f 這個東西，明顯地，它不是函數，因為它不符合：「一個輸入，一個輸出」，例如</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%2C%5Cfrac%7B3%7D%7B4%7D%29+%3D+%5Cfrac%7B1%2B3%7D%7B2%2B4%7D+%3D+%5Cfrac%7B2%7D%7B3%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(\frac{1}{2},\frac{3}{4}) = \frac{1+3}{2+4} = \frac{2}{3}' title='f(\frac{1}{2},\frac{3}{4}) = \frac{1+3}{2+4} = \frac{2}{3}' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28%5Cfrac%7B2%7D%7B4%7D%2C%5Cfrac%7B3%7D%7B4%7D%29+%3D+%5Cfrac%7B2%2B3%7D%7B4%2B4%7D+%3D+%5Cfrac%7B5%7D%7B8%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(\frac{2}{4},\frac{3}{4}) = \frac{2+3}{4+4} = \frac{5}{8}' title='f(\frac{2}{4},\frac{3}{4}) = \frac{2+3}{4+4} = \frac{5}{8}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>同樣輸入 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%28%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%2C%5Cfrac%7B3%7D%7B4%7D%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(\frac{1}{2},\frac{3}{4})' title='(\frac{1}{2},\frac{3}{4})' class='latex' /> 及 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%28%5Cfrac%7B2%7D%7B4%7D%2C%5Cfrac%7B3%7D%7B4%7D%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(\frac{2}{4},\frac{3}{4})' title='(\frac{2}{4},\frac{3}{4})' class='latex' />，輸出迥異。</p>
<p>f 不是函數（function），那麼我們如何稱呼這些 f？Gower 提議用 &#8220;gunction&#8221; 這個字，有興趣有耐性的同學，不況看看以下文章，特別是讀者回應部分：</p>
<p>http://gowers.wordpress.com/2009/06/08/why-arent-all-functions-well-defined/</p>
<p>3.  解釋和簡略地解釋</p>
<p>在數學考題，著學生 Explain 和 Explain briefly 有沒有分別？如何界定一個「解釋」，真的是一個有效的解釋？肯定不是字數。</p>
<p>比如，試簡略解釋：「設 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=Z&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='Z' title='Z' class='latex' /> ~ <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=N%280%2C1%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='N(0,1)' title='N(0,1)' class='latex' />，當區間 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%28p%2Cq%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(p,q)' title='(p,q)' class='latex' /> 的長度（width）固定，則當 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=p+%3D+-q&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='p = -q' title='p = -q' class='latex' /> 時， <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=P%28p+%26%2360%3B+Z+%26%2360%3B+q%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='P(p &lt; Z &lt; q)' title='P(p &lt; Z &lt; q)' class='latex' /> 的值最大。」</p>
<p>如果單單說一句：從常態分佈的圖像得之。那麼，可否視它為「簡略地解釋」？</p>
<p>雖然這不是百分百錯誤的解釋，但這似乎不算有效的解釋，起碼，究竟從常態分佈的圖像的什麼（特性）得之？</p>
<p>設區間 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%28p%2Cq%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(p,q)' title='(p,q)' class='latex' /> 長度固定為 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=2k&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='2k' title='2k' class='latex' />（<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=k+%26%2362%3B+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='k &gt; 0' title='k &gt; 0' class='latex' />）。把圖像畫出如下</p>
<p><a href="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/files/2009/06/20090626gif01.jpg"><img src="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/files/2009/06/20090626gif01.jpg" alt="20090626gif01" title="20090626gif01" width="450" height="300" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-3590" /></a></p>
<p>當 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%28p%2Cq%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(p,q)' title='(p,q)' class='latex' /> 置中，即 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=p+%3D+-k%2C+q+%3D+k&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='p = -k, q = k' title='p = -k, q = k' class='latex' />，<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=P%28p+%26%2360%3B+Z+%26%2360%3B+q%29+%3D+A&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='P(p &lt; Z &lt; q) = A' title='P(p &lt; Z &lt; q) = A' class='latex' />，把 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%28p+%2C+q%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(p , q)' title='(p , q)' class='latex' /> 右移一些，如圖所示，則在新的位置，<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=P%28p+%26%2360%3B+Z+%26%2360%3B+q%29+%3D+A+%2B+b+-+a&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='P(p &lt; Z &lt; q) = A + b - a' title='P(p &lt; Z &lt; q) = A + b - a' class='latex' />，由<b>常態分佈的圖像</b>，可見 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a+%26%2362%3B+b&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a &gt; b' title='a &gt; b' class='latex' />，即區間在新位置對應的新概率（面積）<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=A+%2B+b+-+a&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='A + b - a' title='A + b - a' class='latex' /> 比區間置中時對應的概率 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=A&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='A' title='A' class='latex' /> 少。</p>
<p>大家覺得這是不是一個有效解釋？是簡略解釋嗎？有沒有漏洞？</p>
<p>我也頗喜歡擬要學生解釋的題目，但當中涉及一些似乎不純為數學的問題，比如界定解釋的有效與否，除了運算能力，更難的可能是溝通能力。</p>
<p>數學人喜歡的，相信是冰冷無誤語言：</p>
<p>設 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29+%3D+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%5Csqrt%7B2%5Cpi%7D%7D%5Cint_%7Bx%7D%5E%7Bx%2B2k%7D%5Cexp%28-z%5E2%2F2%29dz&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x) = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi}}\int_{x}^{x+2k}\exp(-z^2/2)dz' title='f(x) = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi}}\int_{x}^{x+2k}\exp(-z^2/2)dz' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%28x%29+%3D+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%5Csqrt%7B2%5Cpi%7D%7D%28%5Cexp%28-%5Cfrac%7B%28x%2B2k%29%5E2%7D%7B2%7D%29+-+%5Cexp%28-%5Cfrac%7Bx%5E2%7D%7B2%7D%29%29+%3D+0+%5CRightarrow+x+%3D+-k&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;(x) = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi}}(\exp(-\frac{(x+2k)^2}{2}) - \exp(-\frac{x^2}{2})) = 0 \Rightarrow x = -k' title='f&#039;(x) = \frac{1}{\sqrt{2\pi}}(\exp(-\frac{(x+2k)^2}{2}) - \exp(-\frac{x^2}{2})) = 0 \Rightarrow x = -k' class='latex' /><br />
因 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%27%28-k%29+%26%2360%3B+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;&#039;(-k) &lt; 0' title='f&#039;&#039;(-k) &lt; 0' class='latex' />，故當 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+-k&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = -k' title='x = -k' class='latex' />，<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x)' title='f(x)' class='latex' /> 達到最大值。</p>
<p>相信這肯定較之前的解釋有效，但簡略嗎？</p>
</div>]]></content:encoded>
</item>
<item>
<title><![CDATA[考試前後]]></title>
<link>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/06/22/day-before-and-after-examination/</link>
<pubDate>Mon, 22 Jun 2009 12:15:45 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>johnmayhk</dc:creator>
<guid>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/06/22/day-before-and-after-examination/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[前 考中二數學前夕，梁同學致電問數。我都「好野」，一邊行街赴父親節宴會，一邊做數講數。 問題太多，晚上回家，梁同學再問下半場。 他問什麼中二數學問題？列幾個： 1. Factorize . 2. 把 ]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p><font color="blue"><b>前</b></font></p>
<p>考中二數學前夕，梁同學致電問數。我都「好野」，一邊行街赴父親節宴會，一邊做數講數。</p>
<p>問題太多，晚上回家，梁同學再問下半場。</p>
<p>他問什麼中二數學問題？列幾個：</p>
<p>1. Factorize <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%28x-1%29%28x-2%29%28x-3%29%28x-4%29+-+48&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(x-1)(x-2)(x-3)(x-4) - 48' title='(x-1)(x-2)(x-3)(x-4) - 48' class='latex' />.<br />
2. 把 8 cm * 10 cm 長方形一對角（opposite angles）摺疊，求摺痕長度。<br />
3. 二進制轉和十六進制的直接互換方法。<br />
&#8230;</p>
<p>等等。</p>
<p><font color="blue"><b>後</b></font><!--more--></p>
<p>考試最後一天，學生考完純數。</p>
<p>鄧同學：「阿 sir，份卷好長呀！」<br />
我：「都唔係呀，都係 F4 size 渣o麻」<br />
鄧同學：「&#8230;」</p>
<p>我不是出卷高手，題目往往又長又悶。同學可以下載看看：</p>
<p><a href='http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/files/2009/06/f6-pure-mathematics-final-examination-2009060221.doc'>f6-pure-mathematics-final-examination-200906022</a></p>
<p>Q.2 和 Q.5 總共用不到半小時 hea 出。稍為要想一想的，是最後一道短題（Q.6），幾個同學問 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Csum_%7Bk+%3D+1%7D%5En%28n+%2B+1%29%5E%7B-1%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\sum_{k = 1}^n(n + 1)^{-1}' title='\sum_{k = 1}^n(n + 1)^{-1}' class='latex' /> 有冇打錯（其實沒有問題的）。</p>
<p>從同學的解題，才看到一些題目的「白痴」，例如</p>
<p>Q.6 如果以 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bn+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7D%5Csum_%7Bk+%3D+1%7D%5En%28n%5Ek+%2B+1%29%5E%7B%5Cfrac%7B-1%7D%7Bk%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{n \rightarrow \infty}\sum_{k = 1}^n(n^k + 1)^{\frac{-1}{k}}' title='\lim_{n \rightarrow \infty}\sum_{k = 1}^n(n^k + 1)^{\frac{-1}{k}}' class='latex' /> 為目的，(a) 是極之無聊的，因為上限是極易找出：</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n%5Ek+%2B+1+%26%2362%3B+n%5Ek&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n^k + 1 &gt; n^k' title='n^k + 1 &gt; n^k' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5CRightarrow+%28n%5Ek+%2B+1%29%5E%7B%5Cfrac%7B-1%7D%7Bk%7D%7D+%26%2360%3B+n%5E%7B-1%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\Rightarrow (n^k + 1)^{\frac{-1}{k}} &lt; n^{-1}' title='\Rightarrow (n^k + 1)^{\frac{-1}{k}} &lt; n^{-1}' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5CRightarrow+%5Csum_%7Bk+%3D+1%7D%5En%28n%5Ek+%2B+1%29%5E%7B%5Cfrac%7B-1%7D%7Bk%7D%7D+%26%2360%3B+%5Csum_%7Bk+%3D+1%7D%5Enn%5E%7B-1%7D+%3D+1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\Rightarrow \sum_{k = 1}^n(n^k + 1)^{\frac{-1}{k}} &lt; \sum_{k = 1}^nn^{-1} = 1' title='\Rightarrow \sum_{k = 1}^n(n^k + 1)^{\frac{-1}{k}} &lt; \sum_{k = 1}^nn^{-1} = 1' class='latex' /></p>
<p>由夾逼原理，完工。又例如</p>
<p>Q.7 如果以解 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=56x%5E4+%2B+60x%5E3+%2B+6x%5E2+-+11x+%2B+k+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='56x^4 + 60x^3 + 6x^2 - 11x + k = 0' title='56x^4 + 60x^3 + 6x^2 - 11x + k = 0' class='latex' /> 為目標，已知它有 triple root，其實直接去解不難，但用之前的結果，似乎簡單複雜化。</p>
<p>我心想長題 Q.7, Q.8 可以送分，試後，從同學的評語看來，未敢樂觀。</p>
<p>Q.7 在 (b) 原先沒有給同學 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bab+-+c%7D%7B2%28b+-+a%5E2%29%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{ab - c}{2(b - a^2)}' title='\frac{ab - c}{2(b - a^2)}' class='latex' />，最後我也給了，望減低傷亡率。<br />
Q.8 明顯是 hea 出的 curve sketching，我是想，這些樣版題目，何來費周章，找幾個可以的數字照改 past paper 已是。</p>
<p>至於另外兩道長題，了無新意：</p>
<p>Q.9 我不過是把已往 MVT （Cauchy form）的問法濃縮，推出 Jensen，再找個可以的函數 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7B%5Csin+x%7D%7Bx%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{\sin x}{x}' title='\frac{\sin x}{x}' class='latex' /> 做個不等式。<br />
Q.10 是 ratio test，亦容易找一些「樣好」的級數（series）來擬題。</p>
<p>事實上今次擬這純數卷是我有生以來最快的，不過，相信我又令不少同學陣亡，他們或希望打我一頓&#8230;</p>
</div>]]></content:encoded>
</item>
<item>
<title><![CDATA[應用純數]]></title>
<link>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/06/21/apply-pure-mathematics/</link>
<pubDate>Sat, 20 Jun 2009 16:02:50 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>johnmayhk</dc:creator>
<guid>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/06/21/apply-pure-mathematics/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[有人強調數學在生活中的應用，有人指出所謂「數學在生活中的應用」是牽強的。經驗使我比較贊成後者。 無論如何，以趣味的角度向學生介紹（所謂的）數學在生活中應用的例子，或許可以達到某些教學的成效。 讓我在這]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>有人強調數學在生活中的應用，有人指出所謂「數學在生活中的應用」是牽強的。經驗使我比較贊成後者。</p>
<p>無論如何，以趣味的角度向學生介紹（所謂的）數學在生活中應用的例子，或許可以達到某些教學的成效。</p>
<p>讓我在這裡介紹一個「偽應用」吧，起碼三本數普書籍有記載此例。</p>
<p>修純數的同學定會接觸介值定理：</p>
<p>設 f 為定義在 [a,b] 上的連續函數，已知 f(a)f(b) &#60; 0，則在 (a,b) 內存在 c 使 f(c) = 0。</p>
<p>這個定理有沒有生活應用例子？嗯，或許有，見下：</p>
<p><img src="http://johnng.inscyber.net/mathgif2/20090620gif01.jpg"></p>
<p><font color="blue"><b>今有方桌子一張，四條腿等長。若把桌子放於凹凸不平但平滑的地面上，證明一定存在某個位置，使四條腿同時著地。</b></font><!--more--></p>
<p>想像從上面看桌面（top view），設 A, B, C, D 為四腿子在地面的投影，見下</p>
<p><img src="http://johnng.inscyber.net/mathgif2/20090620gif02.gif"></p>
<p>連 AC 及 BD，分別視之為直角坐標系中的 x 軸和 y 軸。</p>
<p>想像桌子自由地繞中心轉動，以 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Ctheta&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\theta' title='\theta' class='latex' /> 代表對角線 AC 轉動後與 x 軸的夾角。</p>
<p>命<br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28%5Ctheta%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(\theta)' title='f(\theta)' class='latex' /> = 對應 A, C 兩腿與地面距離之和<br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=g%28%5Ctheta%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='g(\theta)' title='g(\theta)' class='latex' /> = 對應 B, D 兩腿與地面距離之和</p>
<p>因地面光滑，知 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28%5Ctheta%29%2C+g%28%5Ctheta%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(\theta), g(\theta)' title='f(\theta), g(\theta)' class='latex' /> 為連續函數。</p>
<p>可以想像，我們總可使桌子三腿著地，比如先使對應 A, C 的腿著地，即 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28%5Ctheta%29+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(\theta) = 0' title='f(\theta) = 0' class='latex' /> for some <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Ctheta&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\theta' title='\theta' class='latex' />，再使對應 B 的腿著地，這時 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=g%28%5Ctheta%29+%26%2362%3B+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='g(\theta) &gt; 0' title='g(\theta) &gt; 0' class='latex' /></p>
<p>無論如何，我們有</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28%5Ctheta%29g%28%5Ctheta%29+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(\theta)g(\theta) = 0' title='f(\theta)g(\theta) = 0' class='latex' />　<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cforall+%5Ctheta&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\forall \theta' title='\forall \theta' class='latex' /> &#8211; - &#8211; - &#8211; - (*)</p>
<p>現在，不況設為對應 A, B, C 的三腿著地在 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Ctheta+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\theta = 0' title='\theta = 0' class='latex' /> 之處著地，即</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%280%29+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(0) = 0' title='f(0) = 0' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=g%280%29+%26%2362%3B+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='g(0) &gt; 0' title='g(0) &gt; 0' class='latex' /></p>
<p>命<br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=h%28%5Ctheta%29+%3D+f%28%5Ctheta%29+-+g%28%5Ctheta%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='h(\theta) = f(\theta) - g(\theta)' title='h(\theta) = f(\theta) - g(\theta)' class='latex' /></p>
<p>則<br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=h%280%29+%3D+f%280%29+-+g%280%29+%26%2360%3B+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='h(0) = f(0) - g(0) &lt; 0' title='h(0) = f(0) - g(0) &lt; 0' class='latex' /></p>
<p>想像把桌子轉動 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7B%5Cpi%7D%7B2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{\pi}{2}' title='\frac{\pi}{2}' class='latex' />，即 AC 和 BD 的位置互換，易知</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28%5Cfrac%7B%5Cpi%7D%7B2%7D%29+%26%2362%3B+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(\frac{\pi}{2}) &gt; 0' title='f(\frac{\pi}{2}) &gt; 0' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=g%28%5Cfrac%7B%5Cpi%7D%7B2%7D%29+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='g(\frac{\pi}{2}) = 0' title='g(\frac{\pi}{2}) = 0' class='latex' /></p>
<p>則<br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=h%28%5Cfrac%7B%5Cpi%7D%7B2%7D%29+%3D+f%28%5Cfrac%7B%5Cpi%7D%7B2%7D%29+-+g%28%5Cfrac%7B%5Cpi%7D%7B2%7D%29+%26%2362%3B+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='h(\frac{\pi}{2}) = f(\frac{\pi}{2}) - g(\frac{\pi}{2}) &gt; 0' title='h(\frac{\pi}{2}) = f(\frac{\pi}{2}) - g(\frac{\pi}{2}) &gt; 0' class='latex' /></p>
<p>由介值定理，在 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%280+%2C+%5Cfrac%7B%5Cpi%7D%7B2%7D%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(0 , \frac{\pi}{2})' title='(0 , \frac{\pi}{2})' class='latex' /> 中必存在 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=c&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='c' title='c' class='latex' />，使</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=h%28c%29+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='h(c) = 0' title='h(c) = 0' class='latex' /></p>
<p>即 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28c%29+%3D+g%28c%29+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(c) = g(c) = 0' title='f(c) = g(c) = 0' class='latex' />（第二個等式由 (*) 而得）亦即四腿在 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Ctheta+%3D+c&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\theta = c' title='\theta = c' class='latex' /> 之位置著地。</p>
<p>&#8230;&#8230;這例子讓我憶起兒時和弟妹在同一張小桌子上做家課的景象&#8230;&#8230;</p>
<p>下面的例不是純數而是應數的例，純粹順便打一打，有點 Out-C 的，同學見諒。</p>
<p><font color="blue"><b>設有一表面光滑的橄欖球，其表面形狀是由長半軸為 6，短半軸為 3 的橢圓繞其長軸旋轉所得的旋轉橢圓球面。在無風的細雨天，將該球放於室外草坪上，使長軸在水平位置。求雨水從球面上流下的路線方程。</b></font></p>
<p>取 y 軸為長軸，橢圓面方程為</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bx%5E2%7D%7B9%7D+%2B+%5Cfrac%7By%5E2%7D%7B36%7D+%2B+%5Cfrac%7Bz%5E2%7D%7B9%7D+%3D+1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{x^2}{9} + \frac{y^2}{36} + \frac{z^2}{9} = 1' title='\frac{x^2}{9} + \frac{y^2}{36} + \frac{z^2}{9} = 1' class='latex' /></p>
<p>由於雨水會沿 z 下降最快的方向向下流，此方向就是使 z 的方向導數取得最大值的方向，即</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cnabla+z+%3D+%5C%7B%5Cfrac%7B%5Cpartial+z%7D%7B%5Cpartial+x%7D+%2C+%5Cfrac%7B%5Cpartial+z%7D%7B%5Cpartial+y%7D%5C%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\nabla z = \{\frac{\partial z}{\partial x} , \frac{\partial z}{\partial y}\}' title='\nabla z = \{\frac{\partial z}{\partial x} , \frac{\partial z}{\partial y}\}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>設雨水流下的曲線為 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=L&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='L' title='L' class='latex' /> ,<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=L&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='L' title='L' class='latex' /> 在 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=xOy&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='xOy' title='xOy' class='latex' /> 面上的投影曲線的方程為</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=L_%7Bxy%7D+%3A+f%28x%2Cy%29+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='L_{xy} : f(x,y) = 0' title='L_{xy} : f(x,y) = 0' class='latex' /></p>
<p>則 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=L_%7Bxy%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='L_{xy}' title='L_{xy}' class='latex' /> 的切向量 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5C%7Bdx+%2C+dy%5C%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\{dx , dy\}' title='\{dx , dy\}' class='latex' /> 應與 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cnabla+z&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\nabla z' title='\nabla z' class='latex' /> 平行，故</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bdx%7D%7B%28%5Cfrac%7B%5Cpartial+z%7D%7B%5Cpartial+x%7D%29%7D+%3D+%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7B%28%5Cfrac%7B%5Cpartial+z%7D%7B%5Cpartial+y%7D%29%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{dx}{(\frac{\partial z}{\partial x})} = \frac{dy}{(\frac{\partial z}{\partial y})}' title='\frac{dx}{(\frac{\partial z}{\partial x})} = \frac{dy}{(\frac{\partial z}{\partial y})}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>橢圓面方程兩邊取全微分，得</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7B2x%7D%7B9%7Ddx+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B2y%7D%7B36%7D+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B2z%7D%7B9%7Ddz+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{2x}{9}dx + \frac{2y}{36} + \frac{2z}{9}dz = 0' title='\frac{2x}{9}dx + \frac{2y}{36} + \frac{2z}{9}dz = 0' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=dz+%3D+-%5Cfrac%7Bx%7D%7Bz%7Ddx+-+%5Cfrac%7By%7D%7B4z%7Ddy&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='dz = -\frac{x}{z}dx - \frac{y}{4z}dy' title='dz = -\frac{x}{z}dx - \frac{y}{4z}dy' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7B%5Cpartial+z%7D%7B%5Cpartial+x%7D+%3D+-%5Cfrac%7Bx%7D%7Bz%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{\partial z}{\partial x} = -\frac{x}{z}' title='\frac{\partial z}{\partial x} = -\frac{x}{z}' class='latex' />, <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7B%5Cpartial+z%7D%7B%5Cpartial+y%7D+%3D+-%5Cfrac%7By%7D%7B4z%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{\partial z}{\partial y} = -\frac{y}{4z}' title='\frac{\partial z}{\partial y} = -\frac{y}{4z}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>因此</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bdx%7D%7B-%5Cfrac%7Bx%7D%7Bz%7D%7D+%3D+%5Cfrac%7Bdy%7D%7B-%5Cfrac%7By%7D%7B4z%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{dx}{-\frac{x}{z}} = \frac{dy}{-\frac{y}{4z}}' title='\frac{dx}{-\frac{x}{z}} = \frac{dy}{-\frac{y}{4z}}' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bdx%7D%7Bx%7D+%3D+%5Cfrac%7B4dy%7D%7By%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{dx}{x} = \frac{4dy}{y}' title='\frac{dx}{x} = \frac{4dy}{y}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>解出</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+Cy%5E4&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = Cy^4' title='x = Cy^4' class='latex' /> （<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=C&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='C' title='C' class='latex' /> 由雨滴初始位置決定），因此所求的曲線為</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=L%3A+%5Cleft+%5C%7B+%5Cbegin%7Barray%7D%7Bll%7D+x+%3D+Cy%5E4%5C%5C%5Cfrac%7Bx%5E2%7D%7B9%7D+%2B+%5Cfrac%7By%5E2%7D%7B36%7D+%2B+%5Cfrac%7Bz%5E2%7D%7B9%7D+%3D+1%5Cend%7Barray%7D%5Cright.&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='L: \left \{ \begin{array}{ll} x = Cy^4\\\frac{x^2}{9} + \frac{y^2}{36} + \frac{z^2}{9} = 1\end{array}\right.' title='L: \left \{ \begin{array}{ll} x = Cy^4\\\frac{x^2}{9} + \frac{y^2}{36} + \frac{z^2}{9} = 1\end{array}\right.' class='latex' /></p>
<p>&#8230;&#8230;趁我還未忘記記下&#8230;&#8230;</p>
<p>早前的一分鐘閱讀介紹了《當我們變成一堆數字》一書<br />
<img src="http://www.ithome.com.tw/img/110/55377_1_1_l.jpg"><br />
當中出現了一個名詞：Numerati，數字搜客。有時間不況看看書摘：<br />
<a href="http://www.ithome.com.tw/itadm/article.php?c=55377" target="blank">http://www.ithome.com.tw/itadm/article.php?c=55377</a></p>
<p>&#8230;&#8230;無聊聯想到：一分鐘「驗毒」、中學生「驗毒」獎勵計劃&#8230;&#8230;</p>
<p>分享一下學生傳給我的圖：</p>
<p><a href="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/files/2009/06/1245404278575.jpg"><img src="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/files/2009/06/1245404278575.jpg?w=232" alt="1245404278575" title="1245404278575" width="232" height="300" class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-3545" /></a></p>
<p>&#8230;&#8230;我做數也是如此，很人性的感覺吧&#8230;&#8230;</p>
</div>]]></content:encoded>
</item>
<item>
<title><![CDATA[橢圓規]]></title>
<link>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/06/16/ellipsograph/</link>
<pubDate>Tue, 16 Jun 2009 09:57:20 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>johnmayhk</dc:creator>
<guid>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/06/16/ellipsograph/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[不知有沒有授課員用過橢圓規這個教具？（實情我不知這名稱是否正確，網上找到 Ellipsograph 這個字，不知是否橢圓規的正確英文名稱。） 我「靜靜雞」用科組錢買了一個，操作見下： （是，我好似有點]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>不知有沒有授課員用過橢圓規這個教具？（實情我不知這名稱是否正確，網上找到 Ellipsograph 這個字，不知是否橢圓規的正確英文名稱。）</p>
<p><a href="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/files/2009/06/20090608-ellipsograph.jpg"><img src="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/files/2009/06/20090608-ellipsograph.jpg?w=225" alt="20090608-ellipsograph" title="20090608-ellipsograph" width="225" height="300" class="alignnone size-medium wp-image-3490" /></a></p>
<p>我「靜靜雞」用科組錢買了一個，操作見下：<!--more--></p>
<p><span style='text-align:center; display: block;'><object width='425' height='350'><param name='movie' value='http://www.youtube.com/v/cRw0lA38rPY&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' /><param name='allowfullscreen' value='true' /><param name='wmode' value='transparent' /><embed src='http://www.youtube.com/v/cRw0lA38rPY&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' type='application/x-shockwave-flash' allowfullscreen='true' width='425' height='350' wmode='transparent'></embed></object></span></p>
<p>（是，我好似有點 handicapped，因為我又是單手拍片，單手做野。）<br />
趁中四最後一天上課，在堂上試試（其時，課室包括我，共有三名教師，和四十多名學生，各自進行各自的「活動」），原來，第一：插粉筆的洞洞太小，粉筆插不進去。第二：雖然它有四個「吸盤」，但總是粘不著「綠黑板」，不一會又丟下來，要同學出來按著，麻煩非常。</p>
<p>o拿，又是 IT 出場：花一點吹灰之力，便可在網上模擬：</p>
<p><a href="http://www.hkedcity.net/ihouse_tools/forum/read.phtml?forum_id=27877&#38;current_page=&#38;i=1247858&#38;t=1247858" target="blank">http://www.hkedcity.net/ihouse_tools/forum/read.phtml?forum_id=27877&#38;current_page=&#38;i=1247858&#38;t=1247858</a></p>
<p>（橢圓規是「單腳」的，但因為我的 Geogebra 功力麻麻，畫了「雙腳」，見諒。）</p>
<p>當然，這些舊東西，網上俯拾，找一個不錯的 gif：</p>
<p><img src="http://bellsouthpwp.net/e/d/edwin222/Gifs/ellipsedevice.gif"></p>
<p>更多的 gif 可看看：</p>
<p><a href="http://bellsouthpwp.net/e/d/edwin222/enter.htm" target="blank">http://bellsouthpwp.net/e/d/edwin222/enter.htm</a></p>
<p>如果真的要用橢圓規，要找質量好一些的。是，現行的課程沒有研究橢圓，我只是作為軌跡的舊例子而已。</p>
<p>為何動點 D （或 E）點走出來的軌跡是橢圓？</p>
<p>設 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=A%280%2Ca%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='A(0,a)' title='A(0,a)' class='latex' />, <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=B%28b%2C0%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='B(b,0)' title='B(b,0)' class='latex' /> 及 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=D%28x%2Cy%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='D(x,y)' title='D(x,y)' class='latex' />，已知 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=AB&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='AB' title='AB' class='latex' /> 及 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=BD&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='BD' title='BD' class='latex' /> 長度固定，不況設 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=AB+%3A+BD+%3D+1+%3A+r&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='AB : BD = 1 : r' title='AB : BD = 1 : r' class='latex' />，由 section formula，得</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+b%281+%2B+r%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = b(1 + r)' title='x = b(1 + r)' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+-ar&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = -ar' title='y = -ar' class='latex' /></p>
<p>得</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%28%5Cfrac%7Bx%7D%7B1+%2B+r%7D%29%5E2+%2B+%28%5Cfrac%7By%7D%7Br%7D%29%5E2+%3D+AB%5E2+%3D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(\frac{x}{1 + r})^2 + (\frac{y}{r})^2 = AB^2 =' title='(\frac{x}{1 + r})^2 + (\frac{y}{r})^2 = AB^2 =' class='latex' /> 常數，可見 D 走出的軌跡是橢圓也。太代數了，同學或可找找更幾何的證明。</p>
<p>=================================================================</p>
<p>舊檔重貼：答張同學有關拋物線的問題@濟濟一堂學術討論區 2003-04-11 02:04:03</p>
<p><img src="http://johnng.inscyber.net/mathgif/20030411gif.gif"></p>
<p>參考上圖 </p>
<p>球體和切面相切點記為 F，此 F 就時所謂的「焦點」（focus）。<br />
球體和錐體相切處是一圓，過這圓的平面是水平面（平行底部的面）。<br />
此面和切面相交之處是直線，此直線是所謂的「準線」（directrix）。 </p>
<p>要證明切面和錐體相交之處是拋物線，<br />
即證該相交處上任何一點 P 與焦點距離等於它與準線的距離，<br />
如圖所示，欲證 PF = PQ。 </p>
<p>由 tangent from external point，易知 PF = PR。<br />
把 PR 沿水平圓（橙色）旋轉至 P’R’，易知 PR = P’R’。<br />
因切面是平行錐體斜邊切出（平行切才得出拋物線），即 P’R’// PQ，<br />
知 P’R’QP 成平行四邊形，<br />
即 P’R’= PQ。<br />
得出結論 PF = PQ。</p>
<p>＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝<br />
P.S.<br />
有關正生事件，你可以罵我「以偏概全」，但聽到以下的 &#8220;sound bite&#8221;：</p>
<p><b><font color="red">居民陳先生怒斥政府無視民意，質問政府︰「若梅窩設置戒毒學校，樓價下跌，誰負責任？」</font></b></p>
<p>心中的火又徐徐上升&#8230;</p>
</div>]]></content:encoded>
</item>
<item>
<title><![CDATA[溫書題]]></title>
<link>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/06/04/just-for-revision/</link>
<pubDate>Thu, 04 Jun 2009 08:28:20 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>johnmayhk</dc:creator>
<guid>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/06/04/just-for-revision/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[這是溫書時期。 1. 有關數列的題目 這是校內 2007-2008 年度純數期終試其中一題： ======================================= Let {} be a s]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>這是溫書時期。</p>
<p>1. 有關數列的題目</p>
<p>這是校內 2007-2008 年度純數期終試其中一題：<br />
=======================================<br />
Let {<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a_n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a_n' title='a_n' class='latex' />} be a sequence of positive integers. Define sequences {<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=b_n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='b_n' title='b_n' class='latex' />} and {<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=c_n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='c_n' title='c_n' class='latex' />} as<br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=b_1+%3D+a_1%2C+b_2+%3D+a_1a_2+%2B+1%2C+b_%7Bn%2B2%7D+%3D+a_%7Bn%2B2%7Db_%7Bn%2B1%7D+%2B+b_%7Bn%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='b_1 = a_1, b_2 = a_1a_2 + 1, b_{n+2} = a_{n+2}b_{n+1} + b_{n}' title='b_1 = a_1, b_2 = a_1a_2 + 1, b_{n+2} = a_{n+2}b_{n+1} + b_{n}' class='latex' />. (<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n+%5Cin+%5Cmathbb%7BN%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n \in \mathbb{N}' title='n \in \mathbb{N}' class='latex' />)<br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=c_1+%3D+1%2C+c_2+%3D+a_2%2C+c_%7Bn%2B2%7D+%3D+a_%7Bn%2B2%7Dc_%7Bn%2B1%7D+%2B+c_%7Bn%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='c_1 = 1, c_2 = a_2, c_{n+2} = a_{n+2}c_{n+1} + c_{n}' title='c_1 = 1, c_2 = a_2, c_{n+2} = a_{n+2}c_{n+1} + c_{n}' class='latex' />. (<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n+%5Cin+%5Cmathbb%7BN%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n \in \mathbb{N}' title='n \in \mathbb{N}' class='latex' />)<br />
Let <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x_n+%3D+%5Cfrac%7Bb_n%7D%7Bc_n%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x_n = \frac{b_n}{c_n}' title='x_n = \frac{b_n}{c_n}' class='latex' />.  (<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n+%5Cin+%5Cmathbb%7BN%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n \in \mathbb{N}' title='n \in \mathbb{N}' class='latex' />)</p>
<p>Show that <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x_1+%5Cle+%5Clim_%7Bn+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7Dx_n+%5Cle+1+%2B+x_1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x_1 \le \lim_{n \rightarrow \infty}x_n \le 1 + x_1' title='x_1 \le \lim_{n \rightarrow \infty}x_n \le 1 + x_1' class='latex' />.<br />
=======================================<!--more--></p>
<p>不難以 M.I. 證明 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=b_%7Bn%2B1%7Dc_n+-+b_nc_%7Bn%2B1%7D+%3D+%28-1%29%5E%7Bn-1%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='b_{n+1}c_n - b_nc_{n+1} = (-1)^{n-1}' title='b_{n+1}c_n - b_nc_{n+1} = (-1)^{n-1}' class='latex' /> (<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n+%5Cin+%5Cmathbb%7BN%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n \in \mathbb{N}' title='n \in \mathbb{N}' class='latex' />)</p>
<p>那麼</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x_%7Bn%2B2%7D+-+x_n+%3D+%5Cfrac%7Ba_%7Bn%2B2%7D%28b_%7Bn%2B1%7Dc_n+-+b_nc_%7Bn%2B1%7D%29%7D%7Bc_nc_%7Bn%2B1%7D%7D+%3D+%5Cfrac%7Ba_%7Bn%2B2%7D%28-1%29%5E%7Bn-1%7D%7D%7Bc_nc_%7Bn%2B1%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x_{n+2} - x_n = \frac{a_{n+2}(b_{n+1}c_n - b_nc_{n+1})}{c_nc_{n+1}} = \frac{a_{n+2}(-1)^{n-1}}{c_nc_{n+1}}' title='x_{n+2} - x_n = \frac{a_{n+2}(b_{n+1}c_n - b_nc_{n+1})}{c_nc_{n+1}} = \frac{a_{n+2}(-1)^{n-1}}{c_nc_{n+1}}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>從上式立即知道單項數列遞增，雙數列下降，即</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x_1+%26%2360%3B+x_3+%26%2360%3B+x_5+%26%2360%3B+%5Cdots&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x_1 &lt; x_3 &lt; x_5 &lt; \dots' title='x_1 &lt; x_3 &lt; x_5 &lt; \dots' class='latex' /> 及 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x_2+%26%2362%3B+x_4+%26%2362%3B+x_6+%26%2362%3B+%5Cdots&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x_2 &gt; x_4 &gt; x_6 &gt; \dots' title='x_2 &gt; x_4 &gt; x_6 &gt; \dots' class='latex' /></p>
<p>再以 Monotonic sequence theorem 證明單雙數列極限存在。</p>
<p>比較相鄰兩項</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x_%7B2n%2B1%7D+-+x_%7B2n%7D+%3D+%5Cfrac%7B%28-1%29%5E%7B2n-1%7D%7D%7Bc_%7B2n%7Dc_%7B2n%2B1%7D%7D+%26%2360%3B+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x_{2n+1} - x_{2n} = \frac{(-1)^{2n-1}}{c_{2n}c_{2n+1}} &lt; 0' title='x_{2n+1} - x_{2n} = \frac{(-1)^{2n-1}}{c_{2n}c_{2n+1}} &lt; 0' class='latex' />　- &#8211; - &#8211; - &#8211; (*)</p>
<p>即</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x_%7B2n%2B1%7D+%26%2360%3B+x_%7B2n%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x_{2n+1} &lt; x_{2n}' title='x_{2n+1} &lt; x_{2n}' class='latex' />，得</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x_1+%26%2360%3B+x_3+%26%2360%3B+x_5+%26%2360%3B+%5Cdots+%26%2360%3B+x_%7B2n%2B1%7D+%26%2360%3B+x_%7B2n%7D+%26%2360%3B+%5Cdots+%26%2360%3B+x_4+%26%2360%3B+x_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x_1 &lt; x_3 &lt; x_5 &lt; \dots &lt; x_{2n+1} &lt; x_{2n} &lt; \dots &lt; x_4 &lt; x_2' title='x_1 &lt; x_3 &lt; x_5 &lt; \dots &lt; x_{2n+1} &lt; x_{2n} &lt; \dots &lt; x_4 &lt; x_2' class='latex' />，故</p>
<p>單數列存在上限 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x_2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x_2' title='x_2' class='latex' />；雙數列存在下限 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x_1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x_1' title='x_1' class='latex' />；由 MST，即單雙數列極限皆存在。</p>
<p>在 (*) 取極限，</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bn+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7D%28x_%7B2n%2B1%7D+-+x_%7B2n%7D%29+%3D+%5Clim_%7Bn+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7D%5Cfrac%7B%28-1%29%5E%7B2n-1%7D%7D%7Bc_%7B2n%7Dc_%7B2n%2B1%7D%7D+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{n \rightarrow \infty}(x_{2n+1} - x_{2n}) = \lim_{n \rightarrow \infty}\frac{(-1)^{2n-1}}{c_{2n}c_{2n+1}} = 0' title='\lim_{n \rightarrow \infty}(x_{2n+1} - x_{2n}) = \lim_{n \rightarrow \infty}\frac{(-1)^{2n-1}}{c_{2n}c_{2n+1}} = 0' class='latex' /></p>
<p>這是因為 {<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=c_n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='c_n' title='c_n' class='latex' />} 是遞增正整數數列。也說明了</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bn+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7Dx_%7B2n%2B1%7D+%3D++%5Clim_%7Bn+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7Dx_%7B2n%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{n \rightarrow \infty}x_{2n+1} =  \lim_{n \rightarrow \infty}x_{2n}' title='\lim_{n \rightarrow \infty}x_{2n+1} =  \lim_{n \rightarrow \infty}x_{2n}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>到最後一步，陳同學給了一個比 suggested solution 更好的方法：</p>
<p>因 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x_%7B2n%7D+%26%2362%3B+1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x_{2n} &gt; 1' title='x_{2n} &gt; 1' class='latex' />，故 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bn+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7Dx_%7B2n%7D+%5Cge+1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{n \rightarrow \infty}x_{2n} \ge 1' title='\lim_{n \rightarrow \infty}x_{2n} \ge 1' class='latex' />，又 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x_%7B2n%2B1%7D+%26%2360%3B+x_2+%3D+a_1+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Ba_2%7D+%26%2360%3B+a_1+%2B+1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x_{2n+1} &lt; x_2 = a_1 + \frac{1}{a_2} &lt; a_1 + 1' title='x_{2n+1} &lt; x_2 = a_1 + \frac{1}{a_2} &lt; a_1 + 1' class='latex' />，故 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bn+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7Dx_%7B2n%2B1%7D+%5Cle+x_1+%2B+1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{n \rightarrow \infty}x_{2n+1} \le x_1 + 1' title='\lim_{n \rightarrow \infty}x_{2n+1} \le x_1 + 1' class='latex' />，由<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bn+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7Dx_%7B2n%2B1%7D+%3D++%5Clim_%7Bn+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7Dx_%7B2n%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{n \rightarrow \infty}x_{2n+1} =  \lim_{n \rightarrow \infty}x_{2n}' title='\lim_{n \rightarrow \infty}x_{2n+1} =  \lim_{n \rightarrow \infty}x_{2n}' class='latex' />，result follows.</p>
<p>真的比 suggested solution 好！</p>
<p>2. 讓我隨意出一道中四數學超短題：</p>
<p><a href="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/files/2009/06/20090604gif02.gif"><img src="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/files/2009/06/20090604gif02.gif" alt="20090604gif02" title="20090604gif02" width="302" height="192" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-3421" /></a></p>
<p>參考上圖．三角木板 ABC 鈄插平地上，已知 AB = 15 m，BC = 14 m，CA = 13 m。<br />
(a) 求 △ABC 的面積；<br />
(b) 已知 △ABD 是 △ABC 在平地上的垂直投影，其面積是 △ABC 的 60%，求 △ABC 和平地之夾角。</p>
<p>其他溫書題目，請往 download page 下載。</p>
<p>3. 中二同學，因我不見了很多堂，溫習的東西要遲一點補上。</p>
<p>4. 聽到同學們雀躍地告訴我，他們今晚將出席六四悼念晚會，心中感動。維園見！</p>
</div>]]></content:encoded>
</item>
<item>
<title><![CDATA[點數差的期望值]]></title>
<link>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/05/23/expected-difference/</link>
<pubDate>Sat, 23 May 2009 07:03:08 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>johnmayhk</dc:creator>
<guid>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/05/23/expected-difference/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[擲兩顆公平骰子一次，求兩個點數差的期望值。 學生甲： 嗯，擲一顆骰子，點數的期望是 。無論擲兩顆，三顆，它們的點數期望值皆是 ，故此，兩個點數差的期望值就是 。 學生乙： 設 分別是兩顆骰子的點數，則]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>擲兩顆公平骰子一次，求兩個點數差的期望值。</p>
<p>學生甲：</p>
<p>嗯，擲一顆骰子，點數的期望是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B6%7D%281%2B2%2B3%2B4%2B5%2B6%29+%3D+3.5&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{1}{6}(1+2+3+4+5+6) = 3.5' title='\frac{1}{6}(1+2+3+4+5+6) = 3.5' class='latex' />。無論擲兩顆，三顆，它們的點數期望值皆是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=3.5&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='3.5' title='3.5' class='latex' />，故此，兩個點數差的期望值就是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=3.5-+3.5%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='3.5- 3.5= 0' title='3.5- 3.5= 0' class='latex' />。<!--more--></p>
<p>學生乙：</p>
<p>設 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=X+%2CY&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='X ,Y' title='X ,Y' class='latex' /> 分別是兩顆骰子的點數，則要求的是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=E%28%26%23124%3BX-+Y%26%23124%3B%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='E(&#124;X- Y&#124;)' title='E(&#124;X- Y&#124;)' class='latex' />，即是說當 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=X+%5Cge+Y&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='X \ge Y' title='X \ge Y' class='latex' /> 時，求的是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=E%28X+-+Y%29+%3D+E%28X%29+-+E%28Y%29+%3D+3.5+-+3.5+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='E(X - Y) = E(X) - E(Y) = 3.5 - 3.5 = 0' title='E(X - Y) = E(X) - E(Y) = 3.5 - 3.5 = 0' class='latex' />，當 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=X+%5Cle+Y&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='X \le Y' title='X \le Y' class='latex' /> 時，求的是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=E%28Y+-+X%29+%3D+E%28Y%29+-+E%28X%29+%3D+3.5+-+3.5%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='E(Y - X) = E(Y) - E(X) = 3.5 - 3.5= 0' title='E(Y - X) = E(Y) - E(X) = 3.5 - 3.5= 0' class='latex' />，即是說，無論哪一種情況，答案也是零。</p>
<p>請問上述學生的答案正確嗎？</p>
<p>讓我返回最初，看看點數差的分佈情況：以縱橫軸表 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=X%2CY&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='X,Y' title='X,Y' class='latex' /> 值，坐標表對應的點數差，得下表：</p>
<p><a href="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/files/2009/05/20090523gif01.jpg"><img src="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/files/2009/05/20090523gif01.jpg" alt="20090523gif01" title="20090523gif01" width="216" height="161" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-3367" /></a></p>
<p>每坐標出現的概率均等，皆是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B36%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{1}{36}' title='\frac{1}{36}' class='latex' />，經簡單數算，知</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=P%280%29+%3D+%5Cfrac%7B6%7D%7B36%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='P(0) = \frac{6}{36}' title='P(0) = \frac{6}{36}' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=P%281%29+%3D+%5Cfrac%7B10%7D%7B36%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='P(1) = \frac{10}{36}' title='P(1) = \frac{10}{36}' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=P%282%29+%3D+%5Cfrac%7B8%7D%7B36%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='P(2) = \frac{8}{36}' title='P(2) = \frac{8}{36}' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=P%283%29+%3D+%5Cfrac%7B6%7D%7B36%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='P(3) = \frac{6}{36}' title='P(3) = \frac{6}{36}' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=P%284%29+%3D+%5Cfrac%7B4%7D%7B36%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='P(4) = \frac{4}{36}' title='P(4) = \frac{4}{36}' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=P%285%29+%3D+%5Cfrac%7B2%7D%7B36%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='P(5) = \frac{2}{36}' title='P(5) = \frac{2}{36}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>其中 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=P%28k%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='P(k)' title='P(k)' class='latex' /> 即點數差是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=k&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='k' title='k' class='latex' /> 的概率。</p>
<p>故點數差的期望值是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B36%7D%2810%5Ctimes+1+%2B+8%5Ctimes+2+%2B+6%5Ctimes+3+%2B+4%5Ctimes+4+%2B+2%5Ctimes+5%29+%3D+%5Cfrac%7B35%7D%7B18%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{1}{36}(10\times 1 + 8\times 2 + 6\times 3 + 4\times 4 + 2\times 5) = \frac{35}{18}' title='\frac{1}{36}(10\times 1 + 8\times 2 + 6\times 3 + 4\times 4 + 2\times 5) = \frac{35}{18}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>看，答案非零！</p>
<p>未運算前，同學會否感到，既然兩骰互相獨立，且點數分佈均勻（各點出現概率皆是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B6%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{1}{6}' title='\frac{1}{6}' class='latex' />），直觀上，兩點數差的期望值似乎是零，合理吧？學生的算法，問題又出在哪裡？作為授課員，如何透過「非運算」的方式，化解學生的疑問？  </p>
</div>]]></content:encoded>
</item>
<item>
<title><![CDATA[數數唸]]></title>
<link>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/05/13/minor-math-uttering/</link>
<pubDate>Wed, 13 May 2009 11:47:04 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>johnmayhk</dc:creator>
<guid>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/05/13/minor-math-uttering/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[一． 以下數字是「旋轉對稱」的嗎？ 1961 是？嗯，問題係「旋轉對稱」應該是描述圖形，而不是數字&#8230;如果我把它寫成 那這個數字還是「旋轉對稱」的嗎？ 二． ” is differentia]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>一．</p>
<p>以下數字是「旋轉對稱」的嗎？</p>
<p>1961<!--more--></p>
<p>是？嗯，問題係「旋轉對稱」應該是描述圖形，而不是數字&#8230;如果我把它寫成</p>
<p><a href="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/files/2009/05/1961.jpg"><img src="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/files/2009/05/1961.jpg" alt="1961" title="1961" width="60" height="50" class="alignnone size-full wp-image-3348" /></a></p>
<p>那這個數字還是「旋轉對稱」的嗎？</p>
<p>二．</p>
<p>”<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x)' title='f(x)' class='latex' /> is differentiable at <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+a&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = a' title='x = a' class='latex' />”does NOT imply ”<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;(x)' title='f&#039;(x)' class='latex' /> is continuous at <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+a&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = a' title='x = a' class='latex' />”</p>
<p>Just think about a classic example</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29+%3D+x%5E2%5Csin+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x) = x^2\sin \frac{1}{x}' title='f(x) = x^2\sin \frac{1}{x}' class='latex' /> for <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%5Cne+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x \ne 0' title='x \ne 0' class='latex' /> and <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%280%29+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(0) = 0' title='f(0) = 0' class='latex' />.</p>
<p>三．</p>
<p>Justin had just sent me an interesting question.</p>
<p>Prove by mathematical induction that <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E3+%2B+y%5E3+%2B+z%5E3+%3D+3%5En&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^3 + y^3 + z^3 = 3^n' title='x^3 + y^3 + z^3 = 3^n' class='latex' /> has integral solution <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%28x%2Cy%2Cz%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(x,y,z)' title='(x,y,z)' class='latex' /> for any positive integer <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n' title='n' class='latex' />.</p>
<p>Since</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=1%5E3+%2B+1%5E3+%2B+1%5E3+%3D+3%5E1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='1^3 + 1^3 + 1^3 = 3^1' title='1^3 + 1^3 + 1^3 = 3^1' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=0%5E3+%2B+1%5E3+%2B+2%5E3+%3D+3%5E2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='0^3 + 1^3 + 2^3 = 3^2' title='0^3 + 1^3 + 2^3 = 3^2' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=0%5E3+%2B+0%5E3+%2B+3%5E3+%3D+3%5E3&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='0^3 + 0^3 + 3^3 = 3^3' title='0^3 + 0^3 + 3^3 = 3^3' class='latex' /></p>
<p>the statement is true for <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n+%3D+1%2C2%2C3&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n = 1,2,3' title='n = 1,2,3' class='latex' />.</p>
<p>For any positive integer <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=k&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='k' title='k' class='latex' />,<br />
suppose <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x_0%5E3+%2B+y_0%5E3+%2B+z_0%5E3+%3D+3%5Ek&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x_0^3 + y_0^3 + z_0^3 = 3^k' title='x_0^3 + y_0^3 + z_0^3 = 3^k' class='latex' /> for some integers <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x_0%2C+y_0%2C+z_0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x_0, y_0, z_0' title='x_0, y_0, z_0' class='latex' />,<br />
then <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%283x_0%29%5E3+%2B+%283y_0%29%5E3+%2B+%283z_0%29%5E3+%3D+3%5E%7Bk%2B3%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='(3x_0)^3 + (3y_0)^3 + (3z_0)^3 = 3^{k+3}' title='(3x_0)^3 + (3y_0)^3 + (3z_0)^3 = 3^{k+3}' class='latex' /><br />
i.e. the statement is true for <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n+%3D+k+%2B+3&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n = k + 3' title='n = k + 3' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Another problem is, whether, for fixed <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=n&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='n' title='n' class='latex' />, <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E3+%2B+y%5E3+%2B+z%5E3+%3D+3%5En&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^3 + y^3 + z^3 = 3^n' title='x^3 + y^3 + z^3 = 3^n' class='latex' /> has unique integral solution (up to permutation)? Could you give a proof or counter-example? Thank you in advance.</p>
<p>四．</p>
<p>在早上回校的小巴，從坐在最後一個座位的一刻開始，我一直被迫地，聽司機和某位阿叔的對話：</p>
<p>司：「如果買返上一期果幾個冧巴（number），今期（六合彩）就可以中三個字啦！」<br />
叔：「所以話，你要『枕住』幾期買同一注冧巴囉，起碼連續五期要咁買！」<br />
司：「你會唔會買電腦飛？」<br />
叔：「唔好買電腦飛呀！電腦飛每次都有幾個冧巴唔出o架！」<br />
司：「唔係掛？」<br />
叔：「真o架，我個 friend o係馬會做，佢話o架！即係如果佢唔出 3,6,9，今期開 3,6,9，咁咪ｘｘ」</p>
<p>期間，小巴鍾聲響過，飛站後，小姐說：「有落呀，頭先o禁o左鐘o架！」</p>
<p>停車，未幾。</p>
<p>司：「我聽唔到有人打鐘。」<br />
叔：「我都聽唔到！」</p>
<p>（\ ___ /）</p>
<p>鐘（擬人法）：「我肯定頭先畀人打過，阿 John 可以做證！」</p>
<p>為免他們因吹水而再度飛站，我唔打鐘，高聲揚：「橋底有落！」司機舉手示意。</p>
<p>將要到站，司機問：「有冇人要落？」</p>
<p>我（\ ___ /）：「有！」</p>
<p>[SBA]</p>
<p>1.「連續 N 期買同一注」是個買「六合彩」的好策略嗎？<br />
2.「電腦彩票每次都有幾個數字不出現」如何影響中獎的機會？<br />
3. 試比較評論以下的命題：<br />
(a)「連續買 19 次六合彩都唔中頭獎，咁買第 20 次都唔中頭獎的機會便很高！」<br />
(b)「擲一元硬幣 19 次，每次結果都是『公』，咁擲第 20 次都是『公』的機會便很高！」</p>
</div>]]></content:encoded>
</item>
<item>
<title><![CDATA[純數小技]]></title>
<link>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/04/29/minor-technique-in-chain-rule-and-curve-sketching/</link>
<pubDate>Wed, 29 Apr 2009 09:53:54 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>johnmayhk</dc:creator>
<guid>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/04/29/minor-technique-in-chain-rule-and-curve-sketching/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[一．Chain rule 秘技：不要忘記「D 那星」 在下師承我的啟蒙中學教師馬 sir，他喜歡用星星 代表一個 expression，比如要求 不妨視 為一個 expression，以 　代之，曰 ]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p><font color="blue"><b>一．Chain rule 秘技：不要忘記「D 那星」</b></font></p>
<p>在下師承我的啟蒙中學教師馬 sir，他喜歡用星星 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cstar%26%2338%3Bbg%3Dffffff%26%2338%3Bfg%3D000000%26%2338%3Bs%3D3&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\star&amp;bg=ffffff&amp;fg=000000&amp;s=3' title='\star&amp;bg=ffffff&amp;fg=000000&amp;s=3' class='latex' /> 代表一個 expression，比如要求</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bd%7D%7Bdx%7De%5E%7B%5Csin+x%7D%26%2338%3Bbg%3Dffffff%26%2338%3Bfg%3D000000%26%2338%3Bs%3D3&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{d}{dx}e^{\sin x}&amp;bg=ffffff&amp;fg=000000&amp;s=3' title='\frac{d}{dx}e^{\sin x}&amp;bg=ffffff&amp;fg=000000&amp;s=3' class='latex' /></p>
<p>不妨視 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Csin+x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\sin x' title='\sin x' class='latex' /> 為一個 expression，以 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cstar%26%2338%3Bbg%3Dffffff%26%2338%3Bfg%3D000000%26%2338%3Bs%3D3&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\star&amp;bg=ffffff&amp;fg=000000&amp;s=3' title='\star&amp;bg=ffffff&amp;fg=000000&amp;s=3' class='latex' />　代之，曰<!--more--></p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bd%7D%7Bdx%7De%5E%7B%5Cstar%7D%26%2338%3Bbg%3Dffffff%26%2338%3Bfg%3D000000%26%2338%3Bs%3D3&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{d}{dx}e^{\star}&amp;bg=ffffff&amp;fg=000000&amp;s=3' title='\frac{d}{dx}e^{\star}&amp;bg=ffffff&amp;fg=000000&amp;s=3' class='latex' /></p>
<p>好了，當它是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=e%5Ex&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='e^x' title='e^x' class='latex' /> 來 D，即</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bd%7D%7Bdx%7De%5E%7B%5Cstar%7D+%3D+e%5E%7B%5Cstar%7D%26%2338%3Bbg%3Dffffff%26%2338%3Bfg%3D000000%26%2338%3Bs%3D3&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{d}{dx}e^{\star} = e^{\star}&amp;bg=ffffff&amp;fg=000000&amp;s=3' title='\frac{d}{dx}e^{\star} = e^{\star}&amp;bg=ffffff&amp;fg=000000&amp;s=3' class='latex' /></p>
<p>錯！未做完，<font color="red"><b>不要忘記「D 那星」</b></font>，即</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bd%7D%7Bdx%7De%5E%7B%5Cstar%7D+%3D+e%5E%7B%5Cstar%7D%28%5Cstar%29%27%26%2338%3Bbg%3Dffffff%26%2338%3Bfg%3D000000%26%2338%3Bs%3D3&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{d}{dx}e^{\star} = e^{\star}(\star)&#039;&amp;bg=ffffff&amp;fg=000000&amp;s=3' title='\frac{d}{dx}e^{\star} = e^{\star}(\star)&#039;&amp;bg=ffffff&amp;fg=000000&amp;s=3' class='latex' /></p>
<p>這就是 Chain rule！也是說</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bd%7D%7Bdx%7De%5E%7B%5Csin+x%7D+%3D+e%5E%7B%5Csin+x%7D%28%5Csin+x%29%27+%3D+e%5E%7B%5Csin+x%7D%5Ccos+x%26%2338%3Bbg%3Dffffff%26%2338%3Bfg%3D000000%26%2338%3Bs%3D3&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{d}{dx}e^{\sin x} = e^{\sin x}(\sin x)&#039; = e^{\sin x}\cos x&amp;bg=ffffff&amp;fg=000000&amp;s=3' title='\frac{d}{dx}e^{\sin x} = e^{\sin x}(\sin x)&#039; = e^{\sin x}\cos x&amp;bg=ffffff&amp;fg=000000&amp;s=3' class='latex' /></p>
<p><font color="blue"><b>二．Curve sketching 秘技：用計數機</b></font></p>
<p>在下從 Day 1 開始已很討厭 curve sketching 的題目，因為覺得無聊，且學生花費很多時間，也不易找到正確的 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;(x)' title='f&#039;(x)' class='latex' /> 和 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%27%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;&#039;(x)' title='f&#039;&#039;(x)' class='latex' />。幸好，計算機可以幫忙：檢查答案。</p>
<p>舉 2006 AL Pure Mathematics II Q.7 為例，考慮的函數是 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29+%3D+%5Cfrac%7Bx%5E2+-+x+-+6%7D%7Bx+%2B+6%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x) = \frac{x^2 - x - 6}{x + 6}' title='f(x) = \frac{x^2 - x - 6}{x + 6}' class='latex' />，求 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;(x)' title='f&#039;(x)' class='latex' /> 及 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%27%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;&#039;(x)' title='f&#039;&#039;(x)' class='latex' />.</p>
<p>假如你的答案是</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%28x%29+%3D+%5Cfrac%7Bx%28x+%2B+12%29%7D%7B%28x+%2B+6%29%5E2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;(x) = \frac{x(x + 12)}{(x + 6)^2}' title='f&#039;(x) = \frac{x(x + 12)}{(x + 6)^2}' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%27%28x%29+%3D+%5Cfrac%7B72%7D%7B%28x+%2B+6%29%5E3%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;&#039;(x) = \frac{72}{(x + 6)^3}' title='f&#039;&#039;(x) = \frac{72}{(x + 6)^3}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>(for <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%5Cne+-6&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x \ne -6' title='x \ne -6' class='latex' />)</p>
<p>如何驗證它正確與否？用計算機。</p>
<p>CASIO fx-3650P (or 3950P) 有微積分鍵</p>
<p><img src="http://johnng.inscyber.net/mathgif2/20090429gif01.gif"></p>
<p>用法如下。</p>
<p>【MODE】【1】 : 轉成 COMP mode<br />
【SHIFT】【<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cint+dx&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\int dx' title='\int dx' class='latex' />】 : 開始求導</p>
<p>隨即輸入函數：<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bx%5E2+-+x+-+6%7D%7Bx+%2B+6%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{x^2 - x - 6}{x + 6}' title='\frac{x^2 - x - 6}{x + 6}' class='latex' /><br />
要輸入 x，按 【ALPHA】【)】，故輸入上式，即</p>
<p>【(】【ALPHA】【)】【<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^2' title='x^2' class='latex' />】【-】【ALPHA】【)】【-】【6】【)】【<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdiv&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\div' title='\div' class='latex' />】【(】【ALPHA】【)】【+】【6】【)】</p>
<p>好了，函數輸入了，現在隨意代入一個數字，比如 2，目的是要計算機顯示 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%282%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;(2)' title='f&#039;(2)' class='latex' /> 的答案，我們繼續輸入</p>
<p>【，】【2】</p>
<p>一按【EXE】得答案</p>
<p>0.4375</p>
<p>即是說 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%282%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;(2)' title='f&#039;(2)' class='latex' /> = 0.4375</p>
<p>好了，你檢查一下自己算出來的 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7Bx%28x+%2B+12%29%7D%7B%28x+%2B+6%29%5E2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{x(x + 12)}{(x + 6)^2}' title='\frac{x(x + 12)}{(x + 6)^2}' class='latex' />，代入 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = 2' title='x = 2' class='latex' />，得 0.4375，YEAH！放心了&#8230;如果不是 0.4375，麻煩你再計過了。</p>
<p>當檢查了 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;(x)' title='f&#039;(x)' class='latex' /> 正確，放心繼續做 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%27%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;&#039;(x)' title='f&#039;&#039;(x)' class='latex' />。依樣畫葫蘆，用微積分鍵，是輸入 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;(x)' title='f&#039;(x)' class='latex' /> 的式子入計算機，即</p>
<p>開始求導<br />
【SHIFT】【<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cint+dx&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\int dx' title='\int dx' class='latex' />】</p>
<p>輸入函數 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%28x%29+%3D+%5Cfrac%7Bx%28x+%2B+12%29%7D%7B%28x+%2B+6%29%5E2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;(x) = \frac{x(x + 12)}{(x + 6)^2}' title='f&#039;(x) = \frac{x(x + 12)}{(x + 6)^2}' class='latex' /><br />
【(】【ALPHA】【)】【(】【ALPHA】【)】【+】【12】【)】【<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cdiv&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\div' title='\div' class='latex' />】【(】【ALPHA】【)】【+】【6】【)】【<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x%5E2&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x^2' title='x^2' class='latex' />】【)】</p>
<p>隨意試數，比如 3，<br />
【，】【3】【EXE】得答案 0.098765533，即 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%27%283%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;&#039;(3)' title='f&#039;&#039;(3)' class='latex' /> = 0.098765533</p>
<p>好，把 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+3&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = 3' title='x = 3' class='latex' /> 代入你計出來的結果 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7B72%7D%7B%28x+%2B+6%29%5E3%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{72}{(x + 6)^3}' title='\frac{72}{(x + 6)^3}' class='latex' /> = 0.098765432，咦，這和計算機算出的有點出入（但已經很接近吧），這時可以試代入另一個數，比如 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = 0' title='x = 0' class='latex' />，兩者也算出 0.333333333，所以，你求出的<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%27%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;&#039;(x)' title='f&#039;&#039;(x)' class='latex' /> 有很大的機會是正確，也比較放心可以取 2 分，繼續完成餘下的 13 分了。</p>
<p>另外，尋找漸近線（asymptote），可以代入數值大的 x 值，比如 999999999，比較一下 f(999999999) 和（你找出來的） m(999999999) + c 的值，若它們相差太大，暗示答案可能有誤，要重新計算了。</p>
<p><font color="blue"><b>三．D 兩次秘技：凹凸哭笑</b></font></p>
<p>今天教拐點（凹凸性轉變之處），我借用中七同學的作品「哭與笑」幫同學「記憶」，見下：</p>
<p><a href="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2008/12/05/student-work-crying-smiling/" target="blank">http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2008/12/05/student-work-crying-smiling/</a></p>
<p>我道：</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%27%28x%29+%26%2362%3B+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;&#039;(x) &gt; 0' title='f&#039;&#039;(x) &gt; 0' class='latex' />，正，有賺，所以「笑」，即 concave upward（convex）<br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%27%28x%29+%26%2360%3B+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;&#039;(x) &lt; 0' title='f&#039;&#039;(x) &lt; 0' class='latex' />，負，有蝕，所以「喊」，即 concave downward（concave）</p>
<p>（當然，大家不要忘記 MVT 才是推論的王道！）</p>
<p>Also read<br />
<a href="http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2008/01/24/pure-mathematics-%e8%a3%9c%e5%ba%95/" target="blank">http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2008/01/24/pure-mathematics-%e8%a3%9c%e5%ba%95/</a></p>
<p>Disclaimer :<br />
皮毛技巧，高手見笑<br />
這裡也沒有 CASIO 機的廣告&#8230;</p>
</div>]]></content:encoded>
</item>
<item>
<title><![CDATA[一些有關不能使用 l'Hôpital's rule 的例子]]></title>
<link>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/04/22/cannot-apply-lhopitals-rule/</link>
<pubDate>Wed, 22 Apr 2009 01:31:18 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>johnmayhk</dc:creator>
<guid>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/04/22/cannot-apply-lhopitals-rule/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[昨天和同事討論 l&#8217;Hôpital&#8217;s rule，我就是忘記了一個例子，以說明就算運用 l&#8217;Hôpital&#8217;s rule 找到 （有限值），它也未必等於]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>昨天和同事討論 l&#8217;Hôpital&#8217;s rule，我就是忘記了一個例子，以說明就算運用 l&#8217;Hôpital&#8217;s rule 找到 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim+%5Cfrac%7Bf%27%7D%7Bg%27%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim \frac{f&#039;}{g&#039;}' title='\lim \frac{f&#039;}{g&#039;}' class='latex' /> （有限值），它也未必等於 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim+%5Cfrac%7Bf%7D%7Bg%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim \frac{f}{g}' title='\lim \frac{f}{g}' class='latex' />，今早補貼一下：<!--more--></p>
<p><a href="http://www.hkedcity.net/ihouse_tools/forum/read.phtml?forum_id=27877&#38;current_page=&#38;i=1222468&#38;t=1220987" target="blank">http://www.hkedcity.net/ihouse_tools/forum/read.phtml?forum_id=27877&#38;current_page=&#38;i=1222468&#38;t=1220987</a></p>
<p>Mathworld 也記下了兩個例子，參考參考</p>
<p><a href="http://mathworld.wolfram.com/LHospitalsRule.html" target="blank">http://mathworld.wolfram.com/LHospitalsRule.html</a></p>
<p>Opened question: 應該如何教 l&#8217;Hôpital&#8217;s rule？</p>
</div>]]></content:encoded>
</item>
<item>
<title><![CDATA[Trivial reflection of mathematics teaching]]></title>
<link>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/04/21/trivial-reflection-of-mathematics-teaching/</link>
<pubDate>Tue, 21 Apr 2009 10:04:23 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>johnmayhk</dc:creator>
<guid>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/04/21/trivial-reflection-of-mathematics-teaching/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Pure Mathematics is a subject of mathematical &#8220;techniques&#8221;. It provides students with ce]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p><font face="georgia">Pure Mathematics is a  subject of mathematical &#8220;techniques&#8221;. It provides students with certain tools and procedures to solve certain mathematical problems.</p>
<p>However, for me, Pure Mathematics is a subject of &#8220;art&#8221;.</p>
<p>&#8220;Techniques&#8221; can be taught, while &#8220;art&#8221; cannot be taught easily.<!--more--></p>
<p>In symbols, </p>
<p>&#8220;<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=P+%5CRightarrow+x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='P \Rightarrow x' title='P \Rightarrow x' class='latex' />&#8220;, it&#8217;s easy to determine <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x' title='x' class='latex' />; while for<br />
&#8220;<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%5CRightarrow+Q&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x \Rightarrow Q' title='x \Rightarrow Q' class='latex' />&#8220;, it may not be easy to determine <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x' title='x' class='latex' />, sometimes.</p>
<p>Let&#8217;s take an example from textbook. Evaluate</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7Dx%28%281+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%7D%29%5Ex+-+e%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}x((1 + \frac{1}{x})^x - e)' title='\lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}x((1 + \frac{1}{x})^x - e)' class='latex' />.</p>
<p>[I think the question requires students to consider <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%5Crightarrow+%2B%5Cinfty&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x \rightarrow +\infty' title='x \rightarrow +\infty' class='latex' /> only.]</p>
<p>Well, I believe that most of the students could apply l&#8217;Hôpital&#8217;s rule.</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7Dx%28%281+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%7D%29%5Ex+-+e%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}x((1 + \frac{1}{x})^x - e)' title='\lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}x((1 + \frac{1}{x})^x - e)' class='latex' />.<br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D+%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7D%5Cfrac%7B%281+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%7D%29%5Ex+-+e%7D%7B%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='= \lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}\frac{(1 + \frac{1}{x})^x - e}{\frac{1}{x}}' title='= \lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}\frac{(1 + \frac{1}{x})^x - e}{\frac{1}{x}}' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D+%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7D%5Cfrac%7B%281+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%7D%29%5Ex%28%5Cln%281+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%7D%29+-+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B1+%2B+x%7D%29%7D%7B%5Cfrac%7B-1%7D%7Bx%5E2%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='= \lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}\frac{(1 + \frac{1}{x})^x(\ln(1 + \frac{1}{x}) - \frac{1}{1 + x})}{\frac{-1}{x^2}}' title='= \lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}\frac{(1 + \frac{1}{x})^x(\ln(1 + \frac{1}{x}) - \frac{1}{1 + x})}{\frac{-1}{x^2}}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Okay, what will be the next?</p>
<p>l&#8217;Hôpital&#8217;s rule again?</p>
<p>Urm, I believe that, some students may be struggling. &#8220;Should I differentiate the stuff further?&#8221; But, a &#8220;monster&#8221; is predictable.</p>
<p>Well, some students may have a better way. Once we know</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7D%281+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%7D%29%5Ex+%3D+e&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}(1 + \frac{1}{x})^x = e' title='\lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}(1 + \frac{1}{x})^x = e' class='latex' /></p>
<p>We may just consider</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7D%5Cfrac%7B%5Cln%281+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%7D%29+-+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B1+%2B+x%7D%7D%7B%5Cfrac%7B-1%7D%7Bx%5E2%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}\frac{\ln(1 + \frac{1}{x}) - \frac{1}{1 + x}}{\frac{-1}{x^2}}' title='\lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}\frac{\ln(1 + \frac{1}{x}) - \frac{1}{1 + x}}{\frac{-1}{x^2}}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>And if the limit above exists and equal to L (say), then the required limit is eL.</p>
<p>Okay, even we consider the above, what is next? Differentiate directly? Or make some changes before we go on?</p>
<p>Well, let&#8217;s do something first, some students may arrive at</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7Dx%5E2%28%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B1+%2B+x%7D+-+%5Cln%281+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%7D%29%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}x^2(\frac{1}{1 + x} - \ln(1 + \frac{1}{x}))' title='\lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}x^2(\frac{1}{1 + x} - \ln(1 + \frac{1}{x}))' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D+%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7D%5Cfrac%7Bx%5E2%281+-+%281+%2B+x%29%5Cln%281+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%7D%29%29%7D%7B1+%2B+x%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='= \lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}\frac{x^2(1 - (1 + x)\ln(1 + \frac{1}{x}))}{1 + x}' title='= \lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}\frac{x^2(1 - (1 + x)\ln(1 + \frac{1}{x}))}{1 + x}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Next? l&#8217;Hôpital&#8217;s rule again? More horrible monster will come into existence, as expected. Then? Differentiate it again? Okay, I do it, resulting in</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7D%5Bx%5E2%28-%281%2Bx%29%28%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B1%2B1%2Fx%7D%29%28-%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%5E2%7D%29+-+%5Cln%281%2B%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%7D%29%29+%2B+2x%281+-+%281%2Bx%29%5Cln%281%2B%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%7D%29%29%5D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}[x^2(-(1+x)(\frac{1}{1+1/x})(-\frac{1}{x^2}) - \ln(1+\frac{1}{x})) + 2x(1 - (1+x)\ln(1+\frac{1}{x}))]' title='\lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}[x^2(-(1+x)(\frac{1}{1+1/x})(-\frac{1}{x^2}) - \ln(1+\frac{1}{x})) + 2x(1 - (1+x)\ln(1+\frac{1}{x}))]' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Okay, here is another choice of life, continue or not to continue?</p>
<p>For me, I quit.</p>
<p>Looking back to the station</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7D%5Cfrac%7B%5Cln%281+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%7D%29+-+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B1+%2B+x%7D%7D%7B%5Cfrac%7B-1%7D%7Bx%5E2%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}\frac{\ln(1 + \frac{1}{x}) - \frac{1}{1 + x}}{\frac{-1}{x^2}}' title='\lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}\frac{\ln(1 + \frac{1}{x}) - \frac{1}{1 + x}}{\frac{-1}{x^2}}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>If I choose to differentiate both the numerator and the denominator of the fraction directly, then we will obtain</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7D%5Cfrac%7B%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B1+%2B+1%2Fx%7D%28-%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%5E2%7D%29+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%281+%2B+x%29%5E2%7D%7D%7B2%2Fx%5E3%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}\frac{\frac{1}{1 + 1/x}(-\frac{1}{x^2}) + \frac{1}{(1 + x)^2}}{2/x^3}' title='\lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}\frac{\frac{1}{1 + 1/x}(-\frac{1}{x^2}) + \frac{1}{(1 + x)^2}}{2/x^3}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Oh, no stuff of natural logarithm something and there is only a rational function&#8230;seems to see the sun light from the cloud&#8230;</p>
<p>The limit<br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D+%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7D%5Cfrac%7Bx%5E3%7D%7B2%7D%5B%5Cfrac%7B-1%7D%7Bx%281+%2B+x%29%7D+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%281+%2B+x%29%5E2%7D%5D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='= \lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}\frac{x^3}{2}[\frac{-1}{x(1 + x)} + \frac{1}{(1 + x)^2}]' title='= \lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}\frac{x^3}{2}[\frac{-1}{x(1 + x)} + \frac{1}{(1 + x)^2}]' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D+%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7D%5Cfrac%7Bx%5E3%7D%7B2%7D%5Ctimes%5Cfrac%7B-1%7D%7Bx%281+%2B+x%29%5E2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='= \lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}\frac{x^3}{2}\times\frac{-1}{x(1 + x)^2}' title='= \lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}\frac{x^3}{2}\times\frac{-1}{x(1 + x)^2}' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D+%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7D-%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D%5Ctimes%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B%281+%2B+1%2Fx%29%5E2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='= \lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}-\frac{1}{2}\times\frac{1}{(1 + 1/x)^2}' title='= \lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}-\frac{1}{2}\times\frac{1}{(1 + 1/x)^2}' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D+-%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7B2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='= -\frac{1}{2}' title='= -\frac{1}{2}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Sucess! That is, <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7Dx%28%281+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%7D%29%5Ex+-+e%29+%3D+-%5Cfrac%7Be%7D%7B2%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}x((1 + \frac{1}{x})^x - e) = -\frac{e}{2}' title='\lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}x((1 + \frac{1}{x})^x - e) = -\frac{e}{2}' class='latex' />.</p>
<p>You see, what I want to say is, the above &#8220;microscopic&#8221; procedure is not just technique, I think, it seems to be certain kind of &#8220;art&#8221;.</p>
<p>Students&#8217; FAQ (frequently asked question) is &#8220;HOW to think it out?&#8221; or &#8220;WHY you are so clever to consider that stuff/ procedure?&#8221;</p>
<p>Well, you may try another question in the same exercise:</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+%5Cinfty%7Dx%5B%281+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%7D%29%5Ex+-+e%5Cln%281+%2B+%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%7D%29%5Ex%5D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}x[(1 + \frac{1}{x})^x - e\ln(1 + \frac{1}{x})^x]' title='\lim_{x \rightarrow \infty}x[(1 + \frac{1}{x})^x - e\ln(1 + \frac{1}{x})^x]' class='latex' /> = ?</p>
<p>to feel the sense of &#8220;art&#8221;. (A bit &#8220;body catching fire and entered by demons&#8221;&#8230;)</p>
<p>Apart from telling students that &#8220;do more&#8221;, &#8220;learn from experience&#8221; etc., it is always a challenge to lead students to the correct track of thinking, so as to be in line with the solution path, especially, in a microscopic way. Sometimes, I could just say that &#8220;it&#8217;s a kind of feeling&#8221;.</p>
<p>Similar situation appears when we are doing curve sketching problems. In 2005 AL Pure Mathematics Paper 2 Q.7, it required students to sketch the graph of </p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=y+%3D+f%28x%29+%3D+-x+%2B+%26%23124%3Bx%26%23124%3B%5Csqrt%7B%5Cfrac%7Bx%7D%7Bx+%2B+2%7D%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='y = f(x) = -x + &#124;x&#124;\sqrt{\frac{x}{x + 2}}' title='y = f(x) = -x + &#124;x&#124;\sqrt{\frac{x}{x + 2}}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Well, it is likely that the setter of this question had chosen simple coefficents involved to avoid the so-called &#8220;double punishment&#8221;, however, for me, it is still not &#8220;easy&#8221; to determine the expressions of <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;(x)' title='f&#039;(x)' class='latex' /> and <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%27%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;&#039;(x)' title='f&#039;&#039;(x)' class='latex' /> correctly. </p>
<p>For a student being under the real examination pressure, it may also be time-consuming to work out correct expressions.</p>
<p>The marking scheme tells us that, students could only be given 1 mark each for perfectly correct expressions of <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;(x)' title='f&#039;(x)' class='latex' /> and <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%27%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;&#039;(x)' title='f&#039;&#039;(x)' class='latex' />. All the &#8220;microscopic&#8221; procedures in differentiation are in the &#8220;black box&#8221;, never be shown in the marking scheme.</p>
<p>When students are performing badly in similar questions as mentioned above, should they be blamed that they are weak in differentiation? Should they be blamed that they don&#8217;t know l&#8217;Hôpital&#8217;s rule? How to give comment in the marker&#8217;s report? &#8220;Students should be more careful in doing differentiation&#8221;? Well, if a student reads the statement in the report, will it be helpful to him/her? (Just like when seeing the hint:&#8221;by above&#8221; in a structural question, what is the use?)</p>
<p>May be I don&#8217;t like complicated algebraic computation from day 1, and hence I do not emphasize it in my daily teaching of pure mathematics, am I right?</p>
<p>There may be many &#8220;mother-is-female&#8221; type articles (and even (action) research) in education, sorry to give another one.</font></p>
</div>]]></content:encoded>
</item>
<item>
<title><![CDATA[可導性 ]]></title>
<link>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/04/17/differentiability/</link>
<pubDate>Fri, 17 Apr 2009 09:23:03 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>johnmayhk</dc:creator>
<guid>http://johnmayhk.wordpress.com/2009/04/17/differentiability/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[這是有關「可導性」（differentiablity）的討論，寫給那天沒有上復活假期補課班的中六同學。注：討論純粹以中學數學的觀點出發。 先請同學回答下面三道是非題： 1. Put into the ]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p><font face="georgia">這是有關「可導性」（differentiablity）的討論，寫給那天沒有上復活假期補課班的中六同學。注：討論純粹以中學數學的觀點出發。</p>
<p>先請同學回答下面三道是非題：</p>
<p>1. Put <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = 0' title='x = 0' class='latex' /> into the expression of <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;(x)' title='f&#039;(x)' class='latex' /> and it is undefined, then <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x)' title='f(x)' class='latex' /> is not differentiable at <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = 0' title='x = 0' class='latex' />. True?<br />
2. If <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+0%5E-%7Df%27%28x%29+%3D+%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+0%5E%2B%7Df%27%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{x \rightarrow 0^-}f&#039;(x) = \lim_{x \rightarrow 0^+}f&#039;(x)' title='\lim_{x \rightarrow 0^-}f&#039;(x) = \lim_{x \rightarrow 0^+}f&#039;(x)' class='latex' />, then <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x)' title='f(x)' class='latex' /> is differentiable at <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = 0' title='x = 0' class='latex' />. True?<br />
3. If <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+0%5E-%7Df%27%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{x \rightarrow 0^-}f&#039;(x)' title='\lim_{x \rightarrow 0^-}f&#039;(x)' class='latex' /> is finite, then the value of <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bh+%5Crightarrow+0%5E-%7D%5Cfrac%7Bf%28h%29+-+f%280%29%7D%7Bh%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{h \rightarrow 0^-}\frac{f(h) - f(0)}{h}' title='\lim_{h \rightarrow 0^-}\frac{f(h) - f(0)}{h}' class='latex' /> is also finite. True?<!--more--></p>
<p>=======================================</p>
<p>上面三題的答案皆「不一定是」。</p>
<p>=======================================</p>
<p>首先，要描述一個函數是否「可導」（differentiable），我們不是看 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;(x)' title='f&#039;(x)' class='latex' /> 這個表達式是什麼，最安全的，都是返回「可導」的定義。</p>
<p>再看看上述的三題</p>
<p><font color="blue"><b>Question 1</b></font>：</p>
<p>代 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = 0' title='x = 0' class='latex' /> 入表達式 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;(x)' title='f&#039;(x)' class='latex' />，而「計不到數」（undefined），並不一定代表”<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x)' title='f(x)' class='latex' /> is not differentiable at <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = 0' title='x = 0' class='latex' />”.</p>
<p>以下是一個經典的例子：</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29+%3D+x%5E2%5Csin%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x) = x^2\sin\frac{1}{x}' title='f(x) = x^2\sin\frac{1}{x}' class='latex' />　for　<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%5Cne+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x \ne 0' title='x \ne 0' class='latex' />　and　<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%280%29+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(0) = 0' title='f(0) = 0' class='latex' />.</p>
<p>對於 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%5Cne+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x \ne 0' title='x \ne 0' class='latex' />，恆有：</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%28x%29+%3D+-%5Ccos%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%7D+%2B+2x%5Csin%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;(x) = -\cos\frac{1}{x} + 2x\sin\frac{1}{x}' title='f&#039;(x) = -\cos\frac{1}{x} + 2x\sin\frac{1}{x}' class='latex' /> &#8211; - &#8211; - &#8211; - (*)</p>
<p>若把 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = 0' title='x = 0' class='latex' /> 代入上式 (*)，但因為當 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = 0' title='x = 0' class='latex' />，<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\frac{1}{x}' title='\frac{1}{x}' class='latex' /> 是「計不到數」（沒有定義 undefined），同學往往以為 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x)' title='f(x)' class='latex' /> 在 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = 0' title='x = 0' class='latex' /> 處也是 undefined，故他們聲稱”<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x)' title='f(x)' class='latex' /> is not differentiable”。</p>
<p>錯！</p>
<p>判別「可導」與否，一定要回歸「可導」的定義：</p>
<p>”<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x)' title='f(x)' class='latex' /> is differentiable at <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = 0' title='x = 0' class='latex' />”的意思是「極限 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bh+%5Crightarrow+0%7D%5Cfrac%7Bf%28h%29+-+f%280%29%7D%7Bh%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{h \rightarrow 0}\frac{f(h) - f(0)}{h}' title='\lim_{h \rightarrow 0}\frac{f(h) - f(0)}{h}' class='latex' /> 存在」。</p>
<p>一旦極限存在，我們才可寫 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%280%29+%3D+%5Clim_%7Bh+%5Crightarrow+0%7D%5Cfrac%7Bf%28h%29+-+f%280%29%7D%7Bh%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;(0) = \lim_{h \rightarrow 0}\frac{f(h) - f(0)}{h}' title='f&#039;(0) = \lim_{h \rightarrow 0}\frac{f(h) - f(0)}{h}' class='latex' />，而並不是先用中四五的手法，找出 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;(x)' title='f&#039;(x)' class='latex' /> 的表達式，再代入 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = 0' title='x = 0' class='latex' />，就得出 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%280%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;(0)' title='f&#039;(0)' class='latex' />。</p>
<p>返回那經典例子：</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29+%3D+x%5E2%5Csin%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bx%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x) = x^2\sin\frac{1}{x}' title='f(x) = x^2\sin\frac{1}{x}' class='latex' />　for　<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%5Cne+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x \ne 0' title='x \ne 0' class='latex' />　and　<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%280%29+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(0) = 0' title='f(0) = 0' class='latex' />.</p>
<p>當我們考慮極限</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bh+%5Crightarrow+0%7D%5Cfrac%7Bf%28h%29+-+f%280%29%7D%7Bh%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{h \rightarrow 0}\frac{f(h) - f(0)}{h}' title='\lim_{h \rightarrow 0}\frac{f(h) - f(0)}{h}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>根據定義，</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28h%29+%3D+h%5E2%5Csin%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bh%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(h) = h^2\sin\frac{1}{h}' title='f(h) = h^2\sin\frac{1}{h}' class='latex' />, <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%280%29+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(0) = 0' title='f(0) = 0' class='latex' />，故</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bh+%5Crightarrow+0%7D%5Cfrac%7Bf%28h%29+-+f%280%29%7D%7Bh%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{h \rightarrow 0}\frac{f(h) - f(0)}{h}' title='\lim_{h \rightarrow 0}\frac{f(h) - f(0)}{h}' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D+%5Clim_%7Bh+%5Crightarrow+0%7D%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bh%7D%28h%5E2%5Csin%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bh%7D+-+0%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='= \lim_{h \rightarrow 0}\frac{1}{h}(h^2\sin\frac{1}{h} - 0)' title='= \lim_{h \rightarrow 0}\frac{1}{h}(h^2\sin\frac{1}{h} - 0)' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D+%5Clim_%7Bh+%5Crightarrow+0%7Dh%5Csin%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bh%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='= \lim_{h \rightarrow 0}h\sin\frac{1}{h}' title='= \lim_{h \rightarrow 0}h\sin\frac{1}{h}' class='latex' /></p>
<p>因 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Csin%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bh%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\sin\frac{1}{h}' title='\sin\frac{1}{h}' class='latex' /> 有界（bounded），且 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bh+%5Crightarrow+0%7Dh+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{h \rightarrow 0}h = 0' title='\lim_{h \rightarrow 0}h = 0' class='latex' />，故 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bh+%5Crightarrow+0%7Dh%5Csin%5Cfrac%7B1%7D%7Bh%7D+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{h \rightarrow 0}h\sin\frac{1}{h} = 0' title='\lim_{h \rightarrow 0}h\sin\frac{1}{h} = 0' class='latex' />，即</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bh+%5Crightarrow+0%7D%5Cfrac%7Bf%28h%29+-+f%280%29%7D%7Bh%7D+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{h \rightarrow 0}\frac{f(h) - f(0)}{h} = 0' title='\lim_{h \rightarrow 0}\frac{f(h) - f(0)}{h} = 0' class='latex' /></p>
<p>亦即此極限存在（等於 0，即 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%280%29+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;(0) = 0' title='f&#039;(0) = 0' class='latex' />）是故</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x)' title='f(x)' class='latex' /> is differentiable at <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = 0' title='x = 0' class='latex' /></p>
<p><font color="blue"><b>Question 2</b></font> 和 <font color="blue"><b>Question 3</b></font> 可以一併考慮，隨便舉例</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29+%3D+x+%2B+1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x) = x + 1' title='f(x) = x + 1' class='latex' />　for　<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%5Cge+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x \ge 0' title='x \ge 0' class='latex' />　and<br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29+%3D+%5Csin+x+-+1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x) = \sin x - 1' title='f(x) = \sin x - 1' class='latex' />　for　<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%26%2360%3B+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x &lt; 0' title='x &lt; 0' class='latex' /></p>
<p>對於 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%5Cne+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x \ne 0' title='x \ne 0' class='latex' />，我們易知</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%28x%29+%3D+1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;(x) = 1' title='f&#039;(x) = 1' class='latex' />　for　<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%26%2362%3B+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x &gt; 0' title='x &gt; 0' class='latex' />　and<br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%28x%29+%3D+%5Ccos+x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;(x) = \cos x' title='f&#039;(x) = \cos x' class='latex' />　for　<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%26%2360%3B+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x &lt; 0' title='x &lt; 0' class='latex' /></p>
<p>易知</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+0%5E-%7Df%27%28x%29+%3D+%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+0%5E-%7D%5Ccos+x+%3D+%5Ccos+0+%3D+1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{x \rightarrow 0^-}f&#039;(x) = \lim_{x \rightarrow 0^-}\cos x = \cos 0 = 1' title='\lim_{x \rightarrow 0^-}f&#039;(x) = \lim_{x \rightarrow 0^-}\cos x = \cos 0 = 1' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+0%5E%2B%7Df%27%28x%29+%3D+%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+0%5E%2B%7D1+%3D+1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{x \rightarrow 0^+}f&#039;(x) = \lim_{x \rightarrow 0^+}1 = 1' title='\lim_{x \rightarrow 0^+}f&#039;(x) = \lim_{x \rightarrow 0^+}1 = 1' class='latex' /></p>
<p>於是</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+0%5E-%7Df%27%28x%29+%3D+%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+0%5E%2B%7Df%27%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{x \rightarrow 0^-}f&#039;(x) = \lim_{x \rightarrow 0^+}f&#039;(x)' title='\lim_{x \rightarrow 0^-}f&#039;(x) = \lim_{x \rightarrow 0^+}f&#039;(x)' class='latex' /></p>
<p>但，明顯地，<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x)' title='f(x)' class='latex' /> 在 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = 0' title='x = 0' class='latex' /> 之處是不可導（not differentiable at <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = 0' title='x = 0' class='latex' />）。</p>
<p>最簡單的原因是，<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x)' title='f(x)' class='latex' /> 在 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = 0' title='x = 0' class='latex' /> 之處根本不連續（not continuous at <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = 0' title='x = 0' class='latex' />），見下</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+0%5E-%7Df%28x%29+%3D+%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+0%5E-%7D%5Csin+x+-+1+%3D+%5Csin+0+-+1+%3D+-1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{x \rightarrow 0^-}f(x) = \lim_{x \rightarrow 0^-}\sin x - 1 = \sin 0 - 1 = -1' title='\lim_{x \rightarrow 0^-}f(x) = \lim_{x \rightarrow 0^-}\sin x - 1 = \sin 0 - 1 = -1' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+0%5E%2B%7Df%28x%29+%3D+%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+0%5E%2B%7D%28x+%2B+1%29+%3D+0+%2B+1+%3D+1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{x \rightarrow 0^+}f(x) = \lim_{x \rightarrow 0^+}(x + 1) = 0 + 1 = 1' title='\lim_{x \rightarrow 0^+}f(x) = \lim_{x \rightarrow 0^+}(x + 1) = 0 + 1 = 1' class='latex' /></p>
<p>可見</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+0%5E-%7Df%28x%29+%5Cne+%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+0%5E%2B%7Df%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{x \rightarrow 0^-}f(x) \ne \lim_{x \rightarrow 0^+}f(x)' title='\lim_{x \rightarrow 0^-}f(x) \ne \lim_{x \rightarrow 0^+}f(x)' class='latex' /></p>
<p>是故 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x)' title='f(x)' class='latex' /> 在 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = 0' title='x = 0' class='latex' /> 之處不連續，從而不可導。</p>
<p>現在，具體地計算一下 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x)' title='f(x)' class='latex' /> 在 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = 0' title='x = 0' class='latex' /> 處的左導數（left-hand derivative），即</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bh+%5Crightarrow+0%5E-%7D%5Cfrac%7Bf%28h%29+-+f%280%29%7D%7Bh%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{h \rightarrow 0^-}\frac{f(h) - f(0)}{h}' title='\lim_{h \rightarrow 0^-}\frac{f(h) - f(0)}{h}' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D+%5Clim_%7Bh+%5Crightarrow+0%5E-%7D%5Cfrac%7B%28%5Csin+h+-+1%29+-+1%7D%7Bh%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='= \lim_{h \rightarrow 0^-}\frac{(\sin h - 1) - 1}{h}' title='= \lim_{h \rightarrow 0^-}\frac{(\sin h - 1) - 1}{h}' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D+%5Clim_%7Bh+%5Crightarrow+0%5E-%7D%5Cfrac%7B%5Csin+h+-+2%7D%7Bh%7D&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='= \lim_{h \rightarrow 0^-}\frac{\sin h - 2}{h}' title='= \lim_{h \rightarrow 0^-}\frac{\sin h - 2}{h}' class='latex' /><br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%3D+%2B%5Cinfty&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='= +\infty' title='= +\infty' class='latex' /></p>
<p>左導數不存在，導數也自然地不存在，順便回答了 <font color="blue"><b>Question 3</b></font>：</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+0%5E-%7Df%27%28x%29+%3D+1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{x \rightarrow 0^-}f&#039;(x) = 1' title='\lim_{x \rightarrow 0^-}f&#039;(x) = 1' class='latex' /> 　（finite）但<br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bh+%5Crightarrow+0%5E-%7D%5Cfrac%7Bf%28h%29+-+f%280%29%7D%7Bh%7D+%3D+%2B%5Cinfty&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{h \rightarrow 0^-}\frac{f(h) - f(0)}{h} = +\infty' title='\lim_{h \rightarrow 0^-}\frac{f(h) - f(0)}{h} = +\infty' class='latex' />　（infinite）</p>
<p>重申一次，縱使存在以下關係：</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+0%5E-%7Df%27%28x%29+%3D+%5Clim_%7Bx+%5Crightarrow+0%5E%2B%7Df%27%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='\lim_{x \rightarrow 0^-}f&#039;(x) = \lim_{x \rightarrow 0^+}f&#039;(x)' title='\lim_{x \rightarrow 0^-}f&#039;(x) = \lim_{x \rightarrow 0^+}f&#039;(x)' class='latex' /></p>
<p>我們也<b>不能知道</b> <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%27%280%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f&#039;(0)' title='f&#039;(0)' class='latex' /> 存在與否，</p>
<p>亦即<b>不能保證</b> <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x)' title='f(x)' class='latex' /> 在 <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = 0' title='x = 0' class='latex' /> 之處是可導。</p>
<p><font color="red"><b>習題</b></font></p>
<p>1. Let</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29+%3D+x+%2B+1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x) = x + 1' title='f(x) = x + 1' class='latex' />　for　<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%5Cge+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x \ge 0' title='x \ge 0' class='latex' />　and<br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29+%3D+%5Csin+x+%2B+a&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x) = \sin x + a' title='f(x) = \sin x + a' class='latex' />　for　<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%26%2360%3B+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x &lt; 0' title='x &lt; 0' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Suppose <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x)' title='f(x)' class='latex' /> is differentiable at <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = 0' title='x = 0' class='latex' />, evaluate <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=a&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='a' title='a' class='latex' />.</p>
<p>2. Let</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29+%3D+x+%2B+1&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x) = x + 1' title='f(x) = x + 1' class='latex' />　for　<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%5Cge+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x \ge 0' title='x \ge 0' class='latex' />　and<br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29+%3D+b%5Csin+x&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x) = b\sin x' title='f(x) = b\sin x' class='latex' />　for　<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%26%2360%3B+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x &lt; 0' title='x &lt; 0' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Will <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x)' title='f(x)' class='latex' /> be differentiable at <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = 0' title='x = 0' class='latex' /> for some real number <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=b&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='b' title='b' class='latex' /> ?</p>
<p>3. Let</p>
<p><img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29+%3D+R%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x) = R(x)' title='f(x) = R(x)' class='latex' />　for　<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%5Cge+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x \ge 0' title='x \ge 0' class='latex' />　and<br />
<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29+%3D+L%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x) = L(x)' title='f(x) = L(x)' class='latex' />　for　<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%26%2360%3B+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x &lt; 0' title='x &lt; 0' class='latex' /></p>
<p>Given that <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=f%28x%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='f(x)' title='f(x)' class='latex' /> is differentiable at <img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=x+%3D+0&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='x = 0' title='x = 0' class='latex' />.</p>
<p>Is is true to write ”<img src='http://l.wordpress.com/latex.php?latex=R%27%280%29+%3D+L%27%280%29&#038;bg=ffffff&#038;fg=000000&#038;s=0' alt='R&#039;(0) = L&#039;(0)' title='R&#039;(0) = L&#039;(0)' class='latex' />”?<br />
</a></font></p>
</div>]]></content:encoded>
</item>

</channel>
</rss>
