Agriculture is not a lost art, but must be recognized as one of those that reached a high development in the remote past and afterward declined, and has not yet recovered its ancient prestige. The system of agriculture developed by the ancient Peruvians enabled them to support large populations in places where modern farmers would be helpless.

The most specialized development of agriculture in the Western Hemisphere was attained, unquestionably, in Peru, and the culmination was reached centuries ago, before Columbus discovered America. Still farther back there must have been a period of slow and gradual development a period to be expressed in millenniums rather than in centuries. At a time when our ancestors in northern Europe were still utter savages, clothed only in skins, and living by hunting and fishing, settled agricultural communities must have existed in the Peruvian region, perhaps in the same valleys that contain the marvelous remnants of the prehistoric art.

The people who did the finest of ancient work are not only gone and forgotten, but lack even the distinction of a name. Written records like those of Egypt and Assyria are lacking in Peru, and even tradition has failed to attach names of kings or nations to many of the ancient monuments. Some writers refer to the builders as Megalithic or Big-stone people, because they used very large stones, like the fabled Cyclopes of the ancient Greeks, who built massive walls and worked in metals. Other writers refer to the ancient Peruvians simply as pre-Incas, because their work evidently belongs to an age farther back then the Inca empire conquered by the Spaniards.

As a race, it may be assumed that the modern Quichuas, or at least the same human type was different in ancient times. In Peru, as in ancient Egypt, it was the custom to mummify the dead and to bury with the mummies the clothing, food, household utensils, weapons, and other objects and articles used by the living.

This regard of the ancients for their dead, together with the dry, equable climate, has made Peru a veritable treasure house of archaeological and scientific material. Not only the skeletons and their other physical features of the ancient people are known, but also the nature and degree of development of all of the arts that could be preserved by burial. The general result of such studies tend to show that the modern Quichuas, the Incas conquered by the Spaniards, and the pre-Inca or Megalithic people were all of the same race and practiced the same arts, including the art of agriculture.

The Incas had a very specialized agriculture, but their predecessors had some of the agricultural arts still more highly developed. They built larger terraces and faced them with larger stones, fitted with wonderful accuracy. The Incas also built extensively, but generally with less skill, or at least with less labor, bedding their stones and plastering their walls with clay, instead of taking he trouble to work down and fit together the huge irregular blocks that characterize the Megalithic period.

The Parental Alliance for Choice in Education Northern Ireland Branch Press Release 17/09 Thursday, 17 December 2009

  PACE has uncovered that in the last 2 years Northern Ireland’s Key Stage 3 literacy levels have crashed. The general decline in pupils’ attainment is best evidenced in the results obtained in English at Key Stage 3. Statistical figures obtained from the Council for Curriculum Examinations and Assessment (CCEA) demonstrate a year-on-year decline in the Levels of attainment obtained in the examinations. Key Stage 3 tests are taken by students in third year at post-primary school.

 Selected Results of Northern Ireland Key Stage 3 Assessments 2004 – 2009  Source: CCEA: Key Stage 3 Assessment 2008/2009 NORTHERN IRELAND SUMMARY http://www.ccea.org.uk/ HOME » CURRICULUM » KEY STAGE 3 » Research and Statistics

PACE PR KS3 Dec09

 The Direction of Change Data Source: http://www.ccea.org.uk/ Graph prepared by: the Parental Alliance for Choice in Education©2009

 In an unexplained development the pupil absence figures for Key Stage testing have risen from a baseline of around 3% to a staggering 44.5% this year.

The Government examination body statistics also show that in recent years following the introduction of the revised curriculum Teacher Assessment predictions have overestimated the pupils’ actual results by a factor of two or more. (See Table above) The natural consequence is that both the parent and pupil will believe that satisfactory progress is being made and discover too late the truth of the matter after irreplaceable learning time has been lost.

 In 2006 the decline in standards in literacy was critically highlighted by reports of the Northern Ireland Audit Office and the Public Accounts Committee in Westminster. Responses by the Department of Education Permanent Secretary, Will Haire, promised to focus on improvement. (See DENI Circular 2007/11) The Circular states: “The Department of Education accords a high priority to literacy and numeracy in line with the revised Northern Ireland Curriculum and asks all teachers, at all key stages, to seek to promote literacy and numeracy in the classroom.” In February 2007 the Northern Ireland Department of Finance and Personnel issued a Memorandum on the 2nd and 3rd Reports from the Committee of Public Accounts Session 2006-2007. An abstract from the report states: “The creation of a new, single Education and Skills Authority (ESA) to support the school system from April 2008 will also have a positive impact on literacy and numeracy. The primary task of the ESA will be to work with schools to improve quality and raise standards across the system and to place literacy and numeracy at the centre of this responsibility.”

Instead of improvements the Key Stage 3 literacy levels have crashed. As parents can see from the CCEA figures the Department of Education has failed on this vital issue yet again. While the decline in pupils achieving Level 6 at KS3 has doubled over a five year period and the negative trend has almost tripled at Level 7 there has been no comment or concern raised from any quarter of the education establishment. The fact that none of the highly paid education watchdogs have reported that something has gone seriously wrong must reflect a degree of complacency over numeracy and literacy.

 PACE believes the Revised Curriculum to be the chief suspect in the literacy decline. The questions must be put;

• What is going to be done to reverse this numeracy and literacy decline in schools before the betrayal of an entire generation of pupils in Northern Ireland becomes irreversible?

 • When will those responsible for failed education initiatives be actually held to account?

There’s no better gift than the gift of reading.

The author of En Peru Blog, Stuart Starrs, has published his best works and stunning photographs of Peru in a four book series. These are must haves for any Andean enthusiast, backpacker, wanna-be backpacker, adventurer or foodie.

Click on the image below to visit En Peru Blog and add these books to your holiday wish-list:

Patrimoniul cultural si cel natural – un dar al trecutului care ar trebui lasat mostenire viitorului – reprezinta doua surse de viata si de inspiratie primordiale. Locuri atat de diverse precum intinderile Parcului National Serengeti din Africa orientala, piramidele din Egipt, Marea Bariera de Corali din Australia sau catedralele baroce din America Latina alcatuiesc un patrimoniu mondial, ale carui situri, potrivit UNESCO, apartin, indiferent de teritoriul pe care sunt plasate, tuturor popoarelor. Multe dintre aceste situri traiesc suferinta unor amenintari ingrijoratoare.

Venetia, Canal Grande

“S-a stins viata falnicei Venetii,/ n-auzi cantari, nu vezi lumini de baluri”. Chiar daca, la vremea cand Eminescu scria aceste versuri, Orasul Dogilor nu mai avea, intr-adevar, opulenta de pe vremea Serenissimei Republici, astazi, cel putin sub raportul spectaculosului si al iluminarii feerice, arata grandios. Problema acestui oras fondat in anul 452, unic in miraculoasa lui alcatuire lacustra, este aceea ca se scufunda cu aproximativ 1,5 cm pe secol, oricat de masive sunt eforturile, sustinute la scara industriala, de pompare a apei din structurile subterane.

Insulele Maldive

Desi pare aproape imposibil de imaginat ca o intrega tara sa se scufunde, exact asta se intampla cu Maldivele, “o semintie” de aproximativ 1.200 de insule, scaldate de niste ape care, potrivit specialistilor, contin cea mai bogata viata marina din lume. 80% dintre aceste insule se afla cu aproape un metru peste nivelul marii si sunt pandite de un risc tragic: cresterea continua a nivelului oceanului, fenomen cauzat de incalzirea globala. In timpul tsunami-ului din 2004, care a afectat intreaga infrastructura a tarii, multi atoli din zona au disparut definitiv de pe harta lumii.

Zapezile de pe Kilimanjaro

Considerat cel mai inalt munte din Africa (6.021 m), Kilimanjaro are un varf (cel vestic) caruia localnicii ii spun, nu intamplator, Masai Ngaje Ngai, adica Salasul lui Dumnezeu. Aerul sau de templu al transcendentului e intretinut si de hlamida imaculata de zapada care ii imbraca, indiferent de anotimp, piscul. In ultimii ani, acest acoperamant alb si-a restrans treptat dimensiunile, din pricina aceleiasi incalziri globale. Specialistii spun ca ghetarii care pareau eterni vor deveni, in doar cincisprezece ani, istorie.

Marele Zid Chinezesc

Cele mai vechi segmente din acest monument, probabil cel mai autoritar simbol al Imperiului de Mijloc, dateaza din secolul al V-lea i.Hr. Frontiera semeata si edificiu de aparare, singurul artefact uman vizibil din spatiul cosmic, Zidul a fost consolidat in vremea dinastiei Ming (secolul al XIV-lea). Astazi, aproape doua treimi din cei 6.400 de kilometri care reprezinta distanta de la granita cu Coreea si pana in desertul Gobi au fost distruse de eroziune si de dezvoltarea necontrolata a regiunilor din preajma.

Luxor, Egipt

Datand, aproximativ, din veacul al XIV-lea i.Hr., complexul Luxor de pe malul apusean al Nilului – care include Valea Regilor, Valea Reginelor, precum si mai bine de 40 de temple si monumente funerare – este amenintat nu doar de ravagiile turismului si de rapacitatea “pradatorilor” de vestigii arheologice, ci si de catre insusi fluviul sacru. Constructia barajului de la Aswan, in urma cu 40 de ani, a prilejuit infiltratii masive de apa, care au erodat vechile fundatii si au acoperit numeroase morminte.

Machu Picchu, Peru

Stravechea cetate incasa este pe cale sa devina o victima a propriei sale popularitati. Ruinele, descoperite de istoricul american Hiram Bingham in 1911, au devenit cea mai populara atractie turistica peruviana din ultima vreme. Traficul urias (circa un milion de vizitatori anual) a provocat destabilizarea si chiar prabusirea unora dintre fundatiile de piatra. In plus, dezvoltarea zonala – consecinta a valului de vilegiaturisti – ameninta mediul alpin in care a fost edificata cetatea.

Triunghiul de coral, Indonezia

In acest spatiu au fost descoperite mai bine de 3.000 de specii de pesti si circa 600 de varietati de corali, adica aproximativ 75% din totalul cunoscut pana asazi. Acest ecosistem paradisiac se confrunta cu doua probleme severe: pescuitul excesiv si pescuitul distructiv (care foloseste, pentru uciderea pestilor, explozibili sau otravuri). Consecinta acestor actiuni criminale este nu doar disparitia vietatilor acvatice, ci si distrugerea habitatului lor.

I think we have the most divisive government that I have ever seen in my lifetime.  We are divided on race. We are divided on ideology.  We are divided with our leadership.  Most importantly we are divided by our faith.  It is there we find the greatest divide.  While Christians are being vilified as being intolerant,    Muslim extremest are being brought from Gitmo to be allowed to put our government on trial.  They call Christian extreme?

Whether you like it or not, the only extreme ledge Christians hang on is that the only way to heaven is through Jesus Christ.  The reason that become the double edged sword is that it says that if you don’t believe in Jesus for the forgiveness of your sins you cannot enter heaven.  Now here’s my question.  Why should that bother anyone?  If you don’t believe in God.  If you don’t believe that Jesus came to the earth to die for sinners. Then why should what I believe bother you.  It’s like if you are trouble by something on TV, then change the channel.  If you don’t want to believe the way I do, then just walk away.  Don’t take it so personal.

While we are unchangeable in our belief, every other religion of the world is the same.  The Muslims believe their way is the only way and they are willing to kill the infidels to prove it.  They will even become a martyrs for their believe.  You can look at other religions of the world and find the same thing.  So why is it that Christians are being demonized?  Why is our government considering people who hold to belief in the name of God’s son, Jesus Christ, people that are to be locked up?

I think it is the same reason that the Arab nations are going to march against Israel.  See I can’t understand why they want to annihilate the people of Israel.  Is it because they believe in the God of Abraham, Issac, and Jacob?  Every nation has committed acts of atrocities against humanity.  History show this to us.  I was subbing in a class last Friday and the assignment was to read the section on the Incas.  As we read this section out loud, I found that this people group was ruled in the same manner as what our government wants to rule us.  Repressiveness is not an ample reality for the US.  I am afraid that is what it will become.

When the government doesn’t like what you say, they stifle your words and thoughts.  When the government want to control business, they take over the biggest of the businesses and then control who gets what and how much they are paid.  They control what you can buy and for sure they control where you go.  We are seeing this today.  GPS may be the catch in the catch 22 phrase.  Your cellphone can be tracked.  Your new car can be computer tracked.  Isn’t it funny that the cash for clunkers main motive was to get rid of the cars that the government can’t track to put people into newer cars that can be.  The problem is that America bought it.  If you don’t believe this, then take a good look at OnStar.  This one feature has the ability to open or close the locks on your doors.  If you car were to get stolen, they can track its location and then kill the engine and lock the doors until the police can arrive and take you into custody.

I don’t think anyone could convince me of anything other.  So it’s time to be wise as serpents and gentle as doves.  It is time to trust that government will fail you.  You must choose to hold to HIS unfailing hand.

And that’s the way I see it today.

Dovezi ale sacrificiilor umane din perioada civilizaţiei incaşe, vechi de circa 600 de ani, au fost descoperite într-un sit arheologic din Peru care adăpostea peste 30 de corpuri aparţinând unor tinere femei.

El 2012 es Bueno no Malo

Muchas películas y documentales alarmistas están tratando hacerte creer que el 2012 es el Apocalipsis o el fin de la humanidad, en primer lugar el único fin que se da es el fin de de la noche galáctica, y también de la era en la que nos encontramos la cual es la era de Piscis, ya que estamos entrando a la era de Acuario la cual es una era muy prometedora para la humanidad, las verdaderas profecías de muchas culturas son que en este nuevo ciclo al que entraremos al dia galactico y a la era de Acuario se dará el despertar de la conciencia, la iluminación, la evolución humana.

• Hopis Predicen un periodo de 25 años de purificación seguido por el Fin del Cuarto Mundo y el comienzo del Quinto
• Mayas Lo llaman el “fin de los días” o el fin del tiempo como lo conocemos
• Maoris Dicen que en cuando se disuelva el velo, se mergiran el mundo físico y espiritual
• Zulu Creen que el mundo será dado vuelta (así, “patas para arriba”)
• Hindus Kali Yuga (fin de los tiempos). La llegada de Kali y la llegada en masa de los iluminados
• Incas Le llaman ‘la Era de conocernos interiormente nuevamente’.
• Aztecas Lo llaman el tiempo del Sexto Sol. Un tiempo de transformación. Creación de una nueva raza
• Dogon Dicen que la nave de los visitantes, el Nommo, regresará en forma de una estrella azul
• Pueblo Reconocen la aparicion del Quinto Mundo
• Cherokee Su calendario termina exactamente el año 2012 exactamente como el calendario Maya
• Tibetanos Las enseñanzas Kalachakra son profecías dejadas por Buddha prediciendo la llegada de la Era Dorada
• Egipto De acuerdo a la Gran Pirámide (calendario de piedra), el ciclo del presente tiempo termina el año 2012.
• El libro sagrado del Zohar dice:”Todos los tesoros celestiales y los enigmas ocultos que durante generaciones no han sido resueltos se descubrirán en la Era de Acuario”

Pero para esto tenemos que ser concientes de la verdadera realidad, existen dos caminos uno es el despertar y la iluminación de la humanidad y otro es el de la destrucción mutua de la humanidad, nadie nos va a destruir, nos vamos a matar unos a otros a menos que cambiemos en el poco tiempo que nos queda:

Los mayas nos dicen que el período intermedio al traspaso, dura 20 años, y ellos lo llaman “El tiempo del No-Tiempo” (esto lo que estamos viviendo, el último katún, empezó en 1992), en donde ocurren grandes cambios. Es allí cuando debemos ser capaces de transformarnos, puesto que será nuestra decisión seguir como humanidad o perecer en nuestra autodestrucción. Esta transformación implica algo tan profundo como la elección de evolucionar. Energéticamente, concientemente, completamente. El final de este proceso, es el año 2012, cuando termina el “Tiempo del No-Tiempo”.

Así que mi única intención es que tomes conciencia y te armonices con todo y contigo mismo, sabes que existe la ley de atracción, la voluntad, la fuerza del pensamiento, trata de atraer cosas buenas a tu vida y a la vida de los demás seres que te rodean. Existen muchas elites malignas que controlan a esta humanidad consumista y quieren que el mundo siga siendo su basurero y su matadero están contaminado tu mente con miedo, con mentiras, con distracciones, para que no tomes conciencia de lo importante que es este tiempo que tenemos, ya que si te dejas llevar por los pensamientos de destrucción, Apocalipsis, muerte, y toda esa basura que te meten a diario con los medios controlados por ellos, el miedo masivo creara una obstrucción de la energía vitalizadota, suprema y cósmica que recibiremos en la era de Acuario, así que no te dejes influenciar por la  negatividad y su odio, se mas fuerte que el miedo y toma conciencia de ti y del universo.

Tantas culturas predicen esta era de Acuario como la era de la conciencia, la era del conocimiento, la era de el despertar, todos somos tan afortunados de existir en este tiempo, de nosotros depende nuestro futuro y el futuro de la  humanidad, si queremos que sea algo bueno para todos piensa cosas buenas y atrae cosas buenas, aun que sea en este corto tiempo trata de cambiar para bien para armonizarte con todo el universo, vamos a ser presentes de unos de los hechos cósmicos mas importantes de la galaxia.

Cada era dura 2100 años aproximadamente y nosotros vamos a contemplar el cambio de era además de un evento muy importante el de el de la alineación galáctica que sucederá el 21 de diciembre del 2012, esta cuenta empiezo en el año 3113 A.C. que fue la “Entrada al HAZ de Sincronización Galáctica” y terminará para el año 2012 con la “Sincronización Galáctica”. Este ciclo dura 5125 años, además lo mas importante estamos cerca del centro de la galaxia ahora estamos en el amanecer de la galaxia (en el tiempo del no tiempo), estamos saliendo de la noche y entrando al día a la mañana galáctica, cada noche y día en la galaxia duran 12.800 años. Somos tan afortunados de vivir en esta época en que tantas cosas maravillosas sucederán.

Así que no tengas miedo del 2012 si tu quieres será algo muy lindo para ti,  para la humanidad, para el planeta y para el universo, yo no soy religiosa pero respeto mucho las creencias de todos, así que de la religión que seas, de la creencia que tengas trata de armonizarte con todos y con todo a tu alrededor.

La verdad sobre el 2012

Muchas películas y documentales alarmistas están tratando hacerte creer que el 2012 es el Apocalipsis o el fin de la humanidad, en primer lugar el único fin que se da es el fin de de la noche galáctica, y también de la era en la que nos encontramos la cual es la era de Piscis, ya que estamos entrando a la era de Acuario la cual es una era muy prometedora para la humanidad, las verdaderas profecías de muchas culturas son que en este nuevo ciclo al que entraremos al dia galactico y a la era de Acuario se dará el despertar de la conciencia, la iluminación, la evolución humana.

• Hopis Predicen un periodo de 25 años de purificación seguido por el Fin del Cuarto Mundo y el comienzo del Quinto
• Mayas Lo llaman el “fin de los días” o el fin del tiempo como lo conocemos
• Maoris Dicen que en cuando se disuelva el velo, se mergiran el mundo físico y espiritual
• Zulu Creen que el mundo será dado vuelta (así, “patas para arriba”)
• Hindus Kali Yuga (fin de los tiempos). La llegada de Kali y la llegada en masa de los iluminados
• Incas Le llaman ‘la Era de conocernos interiormente nuevamente’.
• Aztecas Lo llaman el tiempo del Sexto Sol. Un tiempo de transformación. Creación de una nueva raza
• Dogon Dicen que la nave de los visitantes, el Nommo, regresará en forma de una estrella azul
• Pueblo Reconocen la aparicion del Quinto Mundo
• Cherokee Su calendario termina exactamente el año 2012 exactamente como el calendario Maya
• Tibetanos Las enseñanzas Kalachakra son profecías dejadas por Buddha prediciendo la llegada de la Era Dorada
• Egipto De acuerdo a la Gran Pirámide (calendario de piedra), el ciclo del presente tiempo termina el año 2012.
• El libro sagrado del Zohar dice:”Todos los tesoros celestiales y los enigmas ocultos que durante generaciones no han sido resueltos se descubrirán en la Era de Acuario”

Pero para esto tenemos que ser concientes de la verdadera realidad, existen dos caminos uno es el despertar y la iluminación de la humanidad y otro es el de la destrucción mutua de la humanidad, nadie nos va a destruir, nos vamos a matar unos a otros a menos que cambiemos en el poco tiempo que nos queda:

Los mayas nos dicen que el período intermedio al traspaso, dura 20 años, y ellos lo llaman “El tiempo del No-Tiempo” (esto lo que estamos viviendo, el último katún, empezó en 1992), en donde ocurren grandes cambios. Es allí cuando debemos ser capaces de transformarnos, puesto que será nuestra decisión seguir como humanidad o perecer en nuestra autodestrucción. Esta transformación implica algo tan profundo como la elección de evolucionar. Energéticamente, concientemente, completamente. El final de este proceso, es el año 2012, cuando termina el “Tiempo del No-Tiempo”.

Así que mi única intención es que tomes conciencia y te armonices con todo y contigo mismo, sabes que existe la ley de atracción, la voluntad, la fuerza del pensamiento, trata de atraer cosas buenas a tu vida y a la vida de los demás seres que te rodean. Existen muchas elites malignas que controlan a esta humanidad consumista y quieren que el mundo siga siendo su basurero y su matadero están contaminado tu mente con miedo, con mentiras, con distracciones, para que no tomes conciencia de lo importante que es este tiempo que tenemos, ya que si te dejas llevar por los pensamientos de destrucción, Apocalipsis, muerte, y toda esa basura que te meten a diario con los medios controlados por ellos, el miedo masivo creara una obstrucción de la energía vitalizadota, suprema y cósmica que recibiremos en la era de Acuario, así que no te dejes influenciar por la  negatividad y su odio, se mas fuerte que el miedo y toma conciencia de ti y del universo.

Tantas culturas predicen esta era de Acuario como la era de la conciencia, la era del conocimiento, la era de el despertar, todos somos tan afortunados de existir en este tiempo, de nosotros depende nuestro futuro y el futuro de la  humanidad, si queremos que sea algo bueno para todos piensa cosas buenas y atrae cosas buenas, aun que sea en este corto tiempo trata de cambiar para bien para armonizarte con todo el universo, vamos a ser presentes de unos de los hechos cósmicos mas importantes de la galaxia.

Cada era dura 2100 años aproximadamente y nosotros vamos a contemplar el cambio de era además de un evento muy importante el de el de la alineación galáctica que sucederá el 21 de diciembre del 2012, esta cuenta empiezo en el año 3113 A.C. que fue la “Entrada al HAZ de Sincronización Galáctica” y terminará para el año 2012 con la “Sincronización Galáctica”. Este ciclo dura 5125 años, además lo mas importante estamos cerca del centro de la galaxia ahora estamos en el amanecer de la galaxia (en el tiempo del no tiempo), estamos saliendo de la noche y entrando al día a la mañana galáctica, cada noche y día en la galaxia duran 12.800 años. Somos tan afortunados de vivir en esta época en que tantas cosas maravillosas sucederán.

Así que no tengas miedo del 2012 si tu quieres será algo muy lindo para ti,  para la humanidad, para el planeta y para el universo, yo no soy religiosa pero respeto mucho las creencias de todos, así que de la religión que seas, de la creencia que tengas trata de armonizarte con todos y con todo a tu alrededor.

La vallée sacrée des Incas, au Pérou, est le berceau de la pomme de terre comestible, née il y a environ 8,000 ans et aujourd’hui cultivée partout dans le monde. Cette vallée est située à plus de 3600 mètres d’altitude, sur les flancs, près du site archéologique de Machu Picchu.
 
 Les villageois de cette région ont réuni leurs territoires pour fonder le “parc de la pomme de terre” (Parque de la papa). Ces paysans quechuas, descendants des Incas, cultivent plusieurs variétés distinctes de pommes de terre sur la même parcelle de terrain.
 
 Cette biodiversité permet de tenir à distance les maladies et insectes nuisibles. Ils ont à cœur la préservation de leur terre. Ainsi, au lieu d’utiliser des insecticides, ils sèment en bordure de leurs terrains des espèces de plantes qui éloignent les insectes nuisibles.
 
 Grâce au soutien technoscientifique du centre international de la pomme de terre, une banque de germe-plasma située à Lima, ces communautés ont créé ce parc qui renferme 1200 variétés traditionnelles. Un des objectifs à long terme consiste à réinsérer l’ensemble des 4000 variétés connues de pomme de terre dans la vallée.
 
 Comme elle est facile à cultiver et que sa teneur énergétique est élevée, c’est une culture commerciale précieuse pour des millions d’agriculteurs. La pomme de terre, contrairement aux céréales, n’est pas commercialisée sur le marché mondial. C’est pourquoi il s’agit d’une culture vivement recommandée pour atteindre la sécurité alimentaire.
 
 En ces temps de crise alimentaire mondiale, cette initiative permet la préservation d’une culture ancestrale qui assure l’autosuffisance alimentaire des montagnards mais aussi le développement économique et social de leurs communautés.
 
 Chacun d’entre nous a la capacité de travailler efficacement au changement; ensemble nous pouvons recouvrer l’antique et fortifiante harmonie grâce à laquelle les besoins des humains et ceux de tous leurs compagnons sur la planète se retrouveront en équilibre avec les processus sacrés d’autorégénération de la Terre.

Machu Picchu, high in the Andes Mountains of Peru, is one of South America’s most magnificent and authentic destinations.

Once a royal palace built by an Incan ruler, Machu Picchu sits like a mysterious city eight thousand feet above the sea. Peru’s most famous site, Machu Picchu, is one of the wonders of the world with its two hundred buildings and cloud covered beauty.

About twelve hundred people lived in Machu Picchu, and Peru has done an exceptional job of preserving the treasure that it is.

Professional Inca architects built Machu Picchu with granite blocks and bronze tools, and were so advanced that the thinnest of knife blades can’t be forced between the stones. Today, travelers climb the steep Inca trail to Machu Picchu, but there is a tourist bus from the town of Aguas Calientes.

If you climb Machu Picchu in Peru by foot, don’t forget to stretch when you reach the bottom, your legs will thank you the next morning.

Arrive before dawn and don’t be disappointed by the fog. The ruins and surrounding peaks reveal themselves as the fog lifts, and steal your breath away.

Peru’s Machu Picchu was discovered in 1911, and is today a destination for any travelers seeking an authentic travel experience.

In 1532 on November 16th Pizarro captured Atahualpa. He and his army would then go on to masacre the Incas. 477 years later, Nacho Donut will travel through time to set things right.

The Royal Society

In a shocking revelation in the Sunday  Times http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/education/article6917210.ece  a report was passed to the government in July, only a few weeks before GCSE results were released, when Balls accused critics of exam standards of “rubbishing the achievements of young people”.

The government-backed study has undermined claims by Ed Balls, the schools secretary, that GCSE standards have been maintained, by showing that some science papers include questions so simple that they require no knowledge of the subject.

Sir Martin Taylor, vice-president of  the Royal Society, Britain’s foremost scientific body said:

“If we have science exams that do not test the quality of mathematics needed to do good science, or if we have questions that do not require scientific knowledge to answer them, then we do not have an examination system that is fit for purpose.”

The findings also demonstrated that examination boards were allowing scientifically wrong answers to be marked as correct and that maths was only being tested “in a very limited way”.

"No knowledge required"

Sir Cyril would be aghast at the policy of the Department of Education in Northern Ireland which has removed the statutory requirement for pupils to take GCSE English/Irish or Maths but has made it compulsory for primary school pupils to be assessed using a flawed assessment system form the CEM Centre at the University of Durham.

11-plus practice papers

Richard Pike, chief executive of the Royal Society of Chemistry, said the maths paper was easier than 11+ practice papers from 1960 with which he had compared it.

“That is an extraordinary indictment of the current UK education system,” said Pike. “We cannot continue to live the lie of ever-increasing standards while businesses struggle to recruit staff with numeracy skills, or who understand the quantitative basis of science.”

Richard Pike, chief executive of the Royal Society of Chemistry

Por Edistio Cámere

El mundo andino se encuentra hoy en una verdadera encrucijada.  La sierra cuestiona, no como geografía inerte sino con todo el peso de las vidas que han logrado su conquista, reclamando un rol activo en el escenario peruano. Con sus erguidas y escarpadas montañas, con su peculiar conformación geofísica -ocupando vastos territorios- y ubicado en la franja media del Perú, interroga impertérrito acerca de su destino y gravitación en un medio donde impera la cibernética, la electrónica, la bolsa de valores, el mercado, la burocracia… ¿Qué rol le corresponde desempeñar?  ¿Cuál es su aporte actual a la identidad nacional?

El mundo andino es sui generis en su conformación y constitución, pero no por ello ajeno a la dinámica nacional. La sierra es connatural al Perú, como nación y patria; convencido de la profundidad de esta afirmación, Riva Agüero dice: “La suerte del Perú es inseparable al mundo andino: se hunde o se redime con él, pero no es dado abandonarlo sin suicidarse”. La presencia de los Andes es histórica. No terminó con la Conquista o incluso con la República. Continúa, a tal punto que no se le puede considerar como una etapa superada: Es y será parte de nuestra historia e identidad nacional.

Cuando se viaja de la capital al interior, uno se desplaza en tiempo y en espacio alejándose de la modernidad. En el Perú, existen simultáneamente ritmos históricos que marchan a descompás; por tanto, es necesario un proyecto nacional que, determinadas las características de cada ritmo, los conduzca progresivamente al límite de sus posibilidades, armonizándolos entre sí e integrándolos en el marco de una historia común.

“El Perú moderno ha vivido y vive dos patrimonios: del castellano y del incaico… que aún cuando (aquél) subalterno en ideas, instituciones y lenguas, es primordial en sangre, instintos y tiempo”, ha señalado Riva Agüero.

Y es que el hombre andino no ha sido espectador pasivo. Supo asimilar pero también enseñar. No claudicó en su modus vivendi. Entendió que su pretensión era su permanencia y no solo la búsqueda del bienestar. Sobre este programa edificó su estar-en-el-mundo. Al esfuerzo aislado y solitario opuso el espíritu comunal; al extremo fraccionamiento de los terrenos de cultivo y a la gran variación de las condiciones en diversos pisos climáticos opuso el control vertical de pisos ecológicos; a la dificultad en la utilización de técnicas sofisticadas de cultivo opuso un racional aprovechamiento de la mano de obra; al comercio generalizado opuso el intercambio y las relaciones recíprocas; al concepto utilitarista de la tierra opusieron un enfoque mágico-religioso; finalmente, a una sociedad funcional opusieron la comunidad basadas en lazos de sangre y de parentesco.

Los modos y valores andinos tienen en sí mismos su razón de ser.  Por tanto, al ámbito andino se le aprehende ‘en’ y por ‘sí mismo’. No es otro Perú, pertenece al único Perú, pero presenta otra velocidad, otro ritmo de desarrollo. En el actual contexto social, algunas interrogantes se alzan inquisidoras dentro del concierto nacional: ¿Qué posibilidades tiene el mundo andino? ¿Qué rol le corresponde desempeñar? ¿Cuál es su aporte actual a la identidad nacional?  A su vez: ¿Qué canales se deben utilizar para lograr que la transferencia de tecnología impacte positivamente iniciando un efectivo despegue de lo andino?  ¿Cómo revertir el fenómeno migratorio?

Nuestro futuro como nación es un reto a la creatividad, al tesón y al trabajo, estrechamente unidos al conocimiento exhaustivo y fe en el Perú.

Artículo publicado en la revista Antesala Lima-Perú

PACE have previously pointed out CCEAs adroitness with burying bad news.

After the recent failures of the CEM Incas assessment software the Minister of Education sought an explanation. Since parents and pupils were those  most directly affected by the errors it would seem only right that they had an opportunity to attend any briefing at the Assembly Education Committee.

CCEA seem to have the Education Committee under control as the following images show:

storinc

48 hours notice isn’t good enough.

Todas as pessoas que conhecem a China, com suas diversas línguas e dialetos, costumes e tradições, ficam maravilhados com as riquezas culturais propiciadas por suas tradições, entretanto, não é preciso ir tão longe para se maravilhar com tantos conhecimentos históricos e curiosidades da natureza humana.

Um bom exemplo disso, fica na América do Sul, nas ruínas do outrora majestoso Império Inca. Os números reunidos por pesquisadores a respeito desse povo, que viveu entre 1.200 e 1.553 depois de cristo, mostram como uma Nação pode evoluir tão rapidamente, desenvolver tanto, acumulando em tão pouco tempo tantos conecimentos.

Evidentemente que se pensarmos bem, chegaremos a conclusão de já existir uma cultura razoável na região, afinal, um grande Estado não consegue se desenvolver, se não houver bases tornando isso possível. Daí, cocluímos já haver muita cultura e respeito, na região onde nasceria o grande Império Inca, apesar dos conflitos havidos ali, antes de seu nascimento.

Estudos iniciados em 2.004, mostram ter havito ali uma civilização vançada em cerca de 3.000 anos antes de Cristo. O que mostra toda a sabedoria de Sócrates a respeito da natureza humana – “´Só sei que nada sei” – qundo mais se aprende, mais se descobre a respeito de nossa própria pequenez.

Levanta uma dúvida, também, sobre a certeza de ser a Ásia os colonizadores da Europa. Eu sempre defendi uma tese de o homem só poder pensar em sima de uma estrutura de pensamento completa, não consegue pensar dentro do hipotético. Surgindo, daí, muitos pensamentos confusos. Sócrates quem o diga.

Nessa região falava-se cerca de 8O línguas diferentes, a mais falada, no tentanto, era quichua a língua escolhida para ser a língua oficial do império, até por ser também a mais falada.

A vastidão do império pode ser notada com uma breve análise do mapa, onde pode se sentir a grandiosidade desse povo. O Império Inca se estendia pelo Equador, Colômbia, Argentina e Chile, mas eram Peru e Bolívia os países onde, em toda a totalidade de seus territórios, estava localizada parte do império.

Por volta de 1.800 a.c essa civilização extremamente avançada deixou a região do Norte do Peru, sepalhando sua cultura por boa parte da América do Sul, dando origem, muito tempo depois ao grande Império Inca.

A civilização inca se destaca, entre tantas outras técnicas e criações, pela suas estradas e irrigação, uma mostra de milhares de anos de evolução, totalmente isolada do resto do mundo.

Quando a Civilização Inca, finalmente atingia seu apogeu, por volta do século quinze, graças a genialidade de seus governos que pregava um sistema de vida se lutas, sem fome e feliz, do outro lado do mundo, o homem vivia em sua mania de expasão, egoísmo e busca de novos teriitórios. No choque dessas duas vertentes evolucionistas, as consequências trágicas mostram o que a sabedoria popular está cansada de repetir. É mais f´cil destruir do que construir, matar a dar a luz, assim terminando com tudo.

Pachacuti, um dos mais brilhantes e poderosos homens da cultura inca, era também um grande diplomata, antes de invadir um território, enviava um mensageiro, com as protostas de se juntar ao império, mantendo o controle local, e tendo em troca educação, passando a se tornar parte da nobreza do império.

Essas téticas lembram muito a Cézar, do império romano, mostrando a evolução do homem de duas formas, dos dois lados do mundo.

Em troca de se aderirem ao império, os povos pagavam impostos, recebiam toda a tecnologia do império, como os eficientes sistemas postais, onde os mensageiros, chasquis, transportavam mensagens em uma forma de escrita, onde uma pequena cortina feita de pequenas cordas, ou barbantes, onde os nós significavam a mensagem.

Os postos postais se localizavam de 20 em 20 km, propiciando um tráfego de informação muito eficiente. Durante um único dia, uma mensagem poderia percorrer centenas de quilômetros, cento e vinte cinco milhas, por esse sistema, útil também para se enviar mensagens oficiais.

Além do eficiente serviço postal, outro sistema muito eficiente, eram as estradas. Eram milhares de quilômetros de estradas, percorrendo todo a vastidão do império.

Por essas estradas, eram transportados, principalmente, alimentos, além de serem úteis para as guerras.

No auge de seu império, os incas chegaram a atingir toda a região andina, cerca de 3,000 km.

O imperador Manco Capac, ou Manku Qhapaq, foi o primeiro imperador do império inca, Tawantinsuyu em quíchua, o último foi Atahualpa, assassinado pelos espanhóis, de pois de pagar toneladas em tesouros pelo seu resgate.

Em seu lugar foi nomeado um imperador fantoche.

Na religião politeísta dos incas, eram contruídos templos, em forma de pirãmides, dedicados ao deus Sol. A semelhança, aqui, em relação à civilização egípcia é clara, a diferença é que, enquanto os faraós egípcios eram o próprio deus, e eram enterrados nas pirâmides, na civilização inca, o imperador era divinizado, acreditavam numa força superior, mas as pirãmides eram templos e não túmulos, mesmo assim a cultura egípcia é muito parecida.

O fato dos incas terem o calendário de trinta dias, poderia se explicar o fato de Matuzalem, famoso personagem bíblico ter morrido com mais de 900 anos, poderia ser um erro na tradução, como nós sabemos a tradição cristã exige fidelidade na escrita, o que foi estendido para a tradução dos textos também.

Cada mês tinha o seu festiva, na cultura inca, onde Janeiro, significava pequena colheita, até dezembro, festival magnífico.

Os incas adoravam os deuses e ofereciam safrifícios humanos, mas os escolhidos se sentiam honrados pois só as corretas eram escolhidas, mulheres belas ou crianças. Eles acreditavam em reencarnação e mumificavão seus mortos.

O imperador era chamado de “O Inca”, daí surgiu a espressão civilização inca.

A escrita feita através de um cordão, onde eram amarrados outros, onde ficavam os nós. Cada cordão poderia significar unidade ou dezena.

Atahualpa, o último imperador inca, viveu num momento conturbado, numa guerra ciil contra seu próprio irmão, em disputa da vaga de imperador deixada por seu pai.

Foi nesse cenário, com o país abalado pelas guerras, imperador enlouquecido que surgiu Francisco Pizarro, com seu exército de espanhóis.

Os incas praticavam o escambo, mas, com a chegada dos espanhós, coneceram o valor do ouro, das doenças européias. Com a mote do imperador por Pizarro, o império entrou em decadência.

O império abalado pela guerra civil, a invasão dos espanhois, provocando infração, ganância pelo ouro, andes desconhecida pelos incas, e o descontentamento do povo, gerado fome, falta de alimento e crueldade dos invasores, provocou a ruína da civilização inca.

Assim, numa região onde tão montanhosa, onde um homem comum tem dificuldade sequer de sobreviver, os incas criaram um sistema de agricultura quase perfeito, numa altitude de zero a seis mil metros, as plantações eram as mais variadas.

O império acabou, mais os povos sobreviveram, sem organização ou tradição de culturas, coisa que dificilmente será recuperado.

Definitivamente, o império inca, com dez milhões de habitantes, tinha muito a ver com o império egípcio.

Principal fonte: Wikipedia

by Jânio

Quand lama fâché, faire de temps en temps ainsi

Ayant eu la chance de partir dernièrement quelques semaines au Pérou, votre Blongo a ramené dans sa besace plein de photos, plein de souvenirs et surtout plein de correctifs à divers préjugés touchant ce magnifique pays. Qui dit Pérou dit en effet toute une série d’idées reçues pas forcément proches de la réalité. Des idées notamment véhiculées par Hergé et Tintin, avec leur fameux voyage au Pérou et en Bolivie dans “Le Temple du Soleil”. Petit passage en revue de ces imprécisions concernant le Pérou:

Quand lama fâché, lui toujours faire ainsi: dans Tintin, le malheureux capitaine Haddock se fait asperger toutes les 5-6 pages par le crachat d’un lama fâché. Eh bien, après quelques tests sur le terrain, et insistance dans l’expérience, il s’avère que le lama (tout comme d’ailleurs ses cousins alpaca et vicuna) ne s’amuse pas à cracher sur tous les touristes qui passent. Certes, l’animal affiche le plus souvent un séduisant regard hautain et semble outré quand on le flatte, mais rien ne sort apparemment de sa grosse bouche ruminante. Déception! Et pourtant… En fait, même si ce n’est pas si fréquent que cela, le lama crache bel et bien quand il est agacé. S’il est légèrement contrarié, il peut envoyer un léger jet liquide. Mais s’il est franchement hors de lui, état qui semble plutôt rare il faut bien l’avouer, c’est un imposant crachat verdâtre qui pourrait vous arriver sur le visage. Il s’agit de régurgitations gastriques à l’odeur nauséabonde. Donc, rendons hommage à Hergé, qui n’a pas, en définitive, totalement imaginé ce comportement pour le moins étrange chez le lama.

Condor passa toujours assez loin

Le condor passa: toujours dans les considérations animalières, il est évident que le bouillonnant condor qui capture Milou dans les Andes est vraiment un casse-cou improbable. Difficile à imaginer aussi de voir un homme utiliser le volatile comme parachute.  Seul le reporter à la houppette en est capable. En réalité, si l’on a la chance d’apercevoir un condor, il faut lever les yeux loin dans le ciel. Quant au fourmilier qui vient lécher les fourmis sur le visage du bon vieux capitaine, la scène est plus loufoque que réaliste. Enfin, il faut préciser que les alligators que rencontrent nos héros dans la jungle sont en fait des caïmans, seule espèce de ce type à vivre en Amérique du Sud.

Les incas ont tout inventé en Amérique du Sud: c’est à la fois vrai et pas vrai. L’origine des incas n’est pas connue avec certitude, mais on sait que leurs premières traces remontent au 13e siècle environ. Les incas ont une réputation de bâtisseurs efficaces et courageux, de génies de l’architecture et des arts en général. C’est absolument vrai, et le Machu Picchu, notamment, le prouve. Toutefois, ce que l’on sait moins, c’est que les incas n’ont de loin pas tout inventé au Pérou et en Bolivie. En fait, ces malins incas ont en grande partie chipé leur savoir chez les autres: en intégrant progressivement toutes les cultures pré-incas et en les étouffant peu à peu, jusqu’à ce qu’elles disparaissent. Et ils ont conservé le meilleur de chacune d’entre elles pour former la culture inca. Telle idée architecturale de la civilisation nazca, on la garde, telle procédé de façonnage des poteries paracas, on le conserve. Fort malicieux. Tout cela pour préciser le fait que seuls les incas bénéficient d’un certaine notoriété en Amérique du Sud, mais qu’il existe toutefois des centaines de cultures préincas méconnues.

Prévoir une éclipse: aujourd’hui, on arrive aisément à savoir à l’avance quand les éclipses interviendront. Et à l’époque d’Hergé aussi. Mais les incas connaissaient aussi le phénomène. Donc, la surprise totale des incas et leur terreur quand Tintin invoque le Soleil pour qu’il se dissimule n’est que peu crédible, même si l’idée fait son effet. Hergé, de son côté, répondait placidement à cette critique qu’il reconnaissait qu’il s’agissait “d’un point noir dans cette affaire”.

Le fameux colibri de Nazca

Les lignes de Nazca: ce n’est pas au Chili ou en Argentine que se trouvent ces étranges lignes tracées sur le désert rocheux de Nazca, mais bien au Pérou, à quelques centaines de kilomètres au sud de Lima. Découvertes dans les années 30, ces figures creusées à 30 cm ou 1 m de profondeur et allant jusqu’à 60 mètres de long entretiennent toujours leur mystère. Personne ne peut affirmer avec certitude ce que représentent le colibri, l’araignée, le singe et les 15 autres animaux et nombreuses formes géométriques qui s’y trouvent. Si la théorie des extra-terrestres vit toujours et est entretenue par certains farfelus imaginatifs, l’explication semble toutefois ailleurs. Tant pis pour le mythe. Certains parlent de calendrier astronomique, pour se repérer dans le mouvement des astres. D’autres y voient seulement des copies terrestres des constellations. D’autres encore des voies hydrauliques. D’autres des figures de prière à un dieu, peut-être pour avoir de l’eau, dans une région où il ne pleut quasiment jamais. Et si c’était tout de même des extra-terrestres?

La géographie d’Hergé: l’auteur belge n’était pas un pro de la géo, comme en témoigne la première planche du “Temple du Soleil”. En effet, la grande ville du Pérou qui est inscrite se nomme Callao. Dans les faits, Callao n’est qu’une infime partie de la capitale Lima, son port marchand où arrive le paquebot Pachacamac. De plus, sur l’une des planches, on aperçoit des hautes montagnes et de la neige derrière Haddock et Tintin. Or, Lima et Callao sont au bord de l’Océan Pacifique, en plein désert qui plus est. Point de sommets neigeux autour, donc. Enfin, sur la carte présentée par Hergé, on apprend que tout le nord du Pérou n’appartient pas au Pérou, mais à l’Equateur! L’erreur provient du fait que le dessinateur a pris comme modèle (pourquoi?) une carte de propagande équatorienne, sur laquelle le nord du Pérou, donc le bassin amazonien, fait partie de l’Equateur, nourrissant ainsi un vieux conflit territorial. Cela explique aussi le fait que ce tome de Tintin ait été longtemps interdit au Pérou!

Le pisco sour: finissons par une vérité que tout le monde se doit de connaître. A un moment donné, ce soiffard de capitaine se fait offrir un pisco en apéritif. Le pisco sour est en effet la boisson nationale du Pérou. Il s’agit d’une eau de vie, généralement de raisins, à laquelle on ajoute du jus de citron vert et du blanc d’oeuf en neige. Cela paraît bizarre, mais c’est divin! Et c’est pas Haddock qui nous contredira, lui qui a assurément emporté une bouteille de ce breuvage pour que Nestor lui serve de bons petits cocktails à Moulinsart… Quant à Tintin, gageons qu’il préfère l’Inka Cola. Cet étrange breuvage jaune fluo remplace le Coca Cola au Pérou. Les Péruviens sont même fiers d’appartenir à l’un des seuls pays au monde où le Coca n’est pas la première boisson consommée, dépassé par ce fameux Inka Cola.

blongo

Par ailleurs, si vous voulez en savoir plus sur toutes les incohérences qui jalonnent les Tintin, suivez ce lien très intéressant):

Ancient Astronomy

Modern astronomy, the branch of physics that studies celestial bodies and the universe as a whole, owes its existence to much more ancient roots than either Kepler or Newton. The word astronomy was derived from the Greek words astron meaning “star” and nomos meaning “law.” But the study of celestial bodies and their movement across the heavens even predates the Greeks. Man has been fascinated by the skies since before written history. Ancient man left his mark and knowledge across the landscape hidden in structures and then later in written records. Traces of careful record keeping of the heavens can be found everywhere, from the royal records of China, the clay tablets of Babylon, the monolithic temples of Egypt, to even the Holy Bible. The study of the heavens in the ancient world was very closely linked with religion. Most ancients sought to establish a reliable calendar to predict seasons and aid in sowing and reaping of crops and even before the invention of the telescope man had devised other methods to measure and track the sun, moon, planets and stars in the sky. In fact they had done it fairly accurately without the use of modern technology. Using only mathematics and their observations ancient man was a master of cataloging the heavens.

Ancient Structures

 Almost every famous structure from the ancient world can be linked to the movement of celestial bodies in the sky. The sun and moon were often a primary focus of these ancient structures. Stonehenge, Machu Pichu, and the Great Pyramids, are just three of the numerous ancient monoliths that can be closely linked to astronomy.

The Great Pyramids of Egypt, although not extensively related to the celestial bodies, through their design imply ancient people’s linkage to the heavens. The stars helped the ancient Egyptians to build the Pyramids. The eastern and western sides of the Pyramids run almost due north, and their southern and northern sides run almost due west. Without their knowledge of astronomy the ancient Egyptians would have been unable to position the pyramids with such accuracy.

Step pyramids created on the completely opposite side of the globe also demonstrate a keen awareness of seasons and the motion of the heavens. An interesting example of this would be the ruins of Chicen Itza in Mexico. The Pyramid was built in such a way that on the spring and autumn equinox the sunlight slowly illuminates the pyramid’s steps from the top of the pyramid to the stone snake head at the base. This gives the illusion of the serpent descending to Earth.

Although it has been intensely debated in the scientific community it is fairly clear that Stonehenge may have held some important astronomical significances. On midsummers morning, the longest day of the year, Stonehenge lines up with the place where the sun rises. This would have been particularly important to farmers as a marker of the seasons. This is but one of the many features which support the concept of Stonehenge as a prehistoric calendar.

Machu Pichu, an important Incan site in Peru, has been linked to intriguing astronomical ideas. The Inithuatana stone can be found at the site of Machu Pichu. The stone was arranged to point directly at the sun during the winter solstice. On midday March 21^st and September 21^st, the equinoxes, the sun casts no shadow when standing almost directly above the pillar. Inithuatana stone, or the “sun-tier,” was believed to be the “hitching point of the sun” because it was believed to actually hold the sun in place throughout its annual journey through the heavens. Archeoastronomers believe that the stone was erected to serve as a type of astronomical calendar or clock.

Celestial Objects and Religion

Man has looked up to the heavens for guidance since the dawn of humanity. Sun worship was one of the first forms of worship since man realized the Sun’s importance in life cycles and the growing of crops. The moon and other visible celestial objects such as the Venus have also played an important role in ancient religions and mythology. Humans have often created myths and stories which coincide with the heavens and ancient man’s observations of them.

The worship of the sun through a solar deity is one of the most ancient forms of worship. The ancient Egyptians, Chinese, Aztecs and Hindus all placed importance on the Sun through the embodiment of a deity or God. The role of this deity was often to express and explain the motion of the Sun. In ancient Egypt the rising and setting of the sun was explained by a struggle between the Pharaoh’s soul who walked upon the Earth by day and his avatar, Osiris, who descended into the underworld by night. The Aztec’s believed in multiple Sun’s, which marked the ages, and believed that they lived beneath the fifth sun, known as Tonatiuh. The Aztecs were fascinated by the Sun and carefully observed its movement through the heavens, devising a calendar second only to that of the Mayans.

Moon worship is also common throughout ancient cultures and is often seen as the contrasting and feminine part of the celestial world. While Solar deities are often marked as masculine and pertaining to the annular cycles, the Lunar deities are often viewed as feminine and relating to the monthly cycles. The Greek goddesses Selene and Pheobe and later on Artemis all reined over the feminine world of the lunar cycles. As well as their Roman counterparts Luna and Diana. But there were also male deities that represented the Moon, such as Nanna or Sin of Mesopotamia, Thoth of the Egyptians, and Tecciztecatl of the Aztecs.

The appearance of the planet Venus in ancient myths was often closely followed by strife and disaster. The Summerians referred to Venus as Inanna and had composed this hymn to her:

“To her who appears in the sky, to her who appears in the sky, I want to address my greeting, to the hierodule who appears in the sky, I want to address my greeting, to the great queen of heaven, Inanna, I want to address my greeting, to her who fills the sky with her pure blaze, to the luminous one, to Inanna, as bright as the sun, to the great queen of heaven.”

The Sumerians also refered to Inanna in literature as the bringer of bad things. This piece was composed about her unforgiving nature:

“You make the heavens tremble and the earth quake. Great Priestess, who can soothe your troubled heart? You flash like lightning over the highlands; you throw your firebrands across the earth. Your deafening command … splits apart great mountains.”

To the Aztecs and the Mayans, Venus was also a sign of bad tidings and troubles. Writings from the 16^th century relay the Aztecs’ response to Venus in this way:

“And when it [Venus] newly emerged, much fear came over them; all were frightened. Everywhere the outlets and openings of [houses] were closed up. It was said that perchance [the light] might bring a cause of sickness, something evil when it came to emerge.”

Even within the bible Venus has been a trouble maker. The well known Lucifer, or “light bringer,” refers to a defiance against God. The “light-bringer” also has close ties with the translation for the “morning star” which is considered to be Venus. The name Lucifer has even been seen as having links with the Devil in texts after the bible.

The heavens and mythology have long been closely related. Frequently Priests and Priestesses and other religious leaders, even those from the Bible such as Moses, have been known to turn to Astronomy, or more correctly Astrology, to predict cataclysmic events. Reading in the heavens, the will of the gods.

Calendars

 Many ancient cultures used the stars to keep track of time and seasons. In fact, this was one of the primary reasons that ancient people took such interest in the stars. They meticulously recorded and then using their records, predicted the seasons and phenomenon such as eclipses. Calendars were very important in determining seasons and when to sow and reap crops.

The Babylonians began recording their observations of the skies as early as 1,800 BC. They were particularly interested in the Sun and Moon. They divided the sky into twelve regions and took particular note of when the sun passed through each of the twelve regions, or constellations. These constellations are known today by the Latin names of the Zodiac. The symbol of a circle divided into these twelve sections is one of the most antique symbolic expressions in written history. The Babylonians took records for such an extended period of time and these recordings reveal such precision of the equinoxes and the regularity of eclipses that they amaze present day scientists. These ancient people, although lacking telescopes and modern technology knew a lot about their ancient skies from mere observation, records, and calculations.

The Egyptians were not nearly as concerned about seasons and calendars as their neighboring civilizations were, since they depended upon the flooding of the Nile each year more than the seasons themselves, but they too took particular notice of the heavens. Contrasting to most other civilizations the ancient Egyptians used the night sky to tell time. They knew that each group of stars rose forty minutes later each night. Observing the position of a group of stars in relation to the day of the year could be used to tell what time it was. These groups of stars were called decans and the Egyptians kept very organized records to keep track of and determine the time for each night of the year.

All throughout the Americas there are towering pyramids that stand as testaments to ancient indigenous tribal group’s interest in the heavens. Almost every Mayan, Aztec, and Inca temple (as well as many other ancient groups) had at least one chamber that tracked the Sun’s movement throughout the year and cataloged the equinoxes. Ancient American tribes also held meetings to determine the calendar and these decorative calendars designed by Aztec and Mayas are still used as home decor today.

Conclusion

 Human nature has again and again drawn man to stare at the skies. It has been a point of interest since the dawn of humanity. Religion, monuments, records, calendars and many more artifacts left by ancient peoples, have all left clues of their extensive observations and knowledge of celestial bodies capable at the time. With careful calculations and record keeping they were even capable of predicting important solar and lunar events. Man will never grow tired of its search of the heavens, even though its been proven there is no bearded man in the sky, humans are still endlessly fascinated with the world beyond their own.