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!!!++!!! Pioeneer Intelligent (2005-2008) Nissan Frontier 6-8 Inch Touchscreen Double-DIN Car DVD Player & In Dash Navigation

robbieherschelhoineelvi — Thu, 06 Jun 2013 02:41:40 +0000

[[]]Pioeneer Intelligent (2005-2008) Nissan Frontier 6-8 Inch Touchscreen Double-DIN Car DVD Player & In Dash Navigation

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Navigation brings the latest navigation technology into your multimedia Unit.High quality electronic components and parts ensure the experience of First Class navigation Multimedia Playback handles the main media formats perfectly such as mpeg,mpeg2,mpeg4,both DivX and Xvid avi,Video DVD,Audio CD,mp3,wma,and jpg.The available media and ports are CD,DVD, USB 2.0,SD, microSD,iPod,iPhone,or any Bluetooth-capable mobile device TV Bring the popular entertainment in the world into your car.Watch High TV channels for free.Perfect quality is granted by the built in Analog TV receiver Radio with RDS built-in radio Unit provides 24 FM/AM station presets,equalizer display,and RDS CD Changer Unit has been designed to retain the factory functions of your car including the CD Changer Original Fit The Pioeneer Unit smoothly,unobtrusively fits into your car’s original dashboard design Steering Wheel Control plug & play nature,the original fit feature,which is both about design and technology,compatible with your car’s CAN-bus system Dual Zone You are listening to radio and occasionally checking the navigation on display with a side-glance,while the kids are watching kid’s channel on the headrest monitors Hands-Free Car Kit provides safe and legal use of your mobile phone via Bluetooth technology.Play music or answer calls with ease-the wireless experience was never as convenient as with your Pioeneer’s user-friendly interface High Quality Sound comes with 5.1 availability,Dolby Surround decoding,BBE sound enhancing technology Hi-Res Touch Screen take control of its features via high quality touch screen.You can access all of functions without pushing buttons or adjusting knobs iPod/iPhone Support the full iPod/iPhone Support feature,which means:what your iPod/iPhone knows,your Pioeneer knows too

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Pioeneer Intelligent (2005-2008) Nissan Frontier 6-8 Inch Touchscreen Double-DIN Car DVD Player & In Dash Navigation

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+!!!!+ Pioeneer Intelligent (2006-2011)HONDA CIVIC left driving 6-8 Inch Touchscreen Double-DIN Car DVD Player & In Dash Navigation

robbieherschelhoineelvi — Thu, 06 Jun 2013 02:41:29 +0000

[[]]Pioeneer Intelligent (2006-2011)HONDA CIVIC left driving 6-8 Inch Touchscreen Double-DIN Car DVD Player & In Dash Navigation

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!!1!! Pioeneer Intelligent (2005-2010) Skoda Octavia II/OCTAVIA III/ FABIA 6-8 Inch Touchscreen Double-DIN Car DVD Player & In

robbieherschelhoineelvi — Thu, 06 Jun 2013 02:41:16 +0000

[[]]Pioeneer Intelligent (2005-2010) Skoda Octavia II/OCTAVIA III/ FABIA 6-8 Inch Touchscreen Double-DIN Car DVD Player & In

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+!!!!+ Pioeneer Intelligent (2006-2012) Mitsubishi Pajero 6-8 Inch Touchscreen Double-DIN Car DVD Player & In Dash Navigation

danialjalisasupertinish — Thu, 06 Jun 2013 02:01:02 +0000

[[]]Pioeneer Intelligent (2006-2012) Mitsubishi Pajero 6-8 Inch Touchscreen Double-DIN Car DVD Player & In Dash Navigation

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+++<>+++ Pioeneer Intelligent (2003-2007) Honda Accord 6-8 Inch Touchscreen Double-DIN Car DVD Player & In Dash Navigation

danialjalisasupertinish — Thu, 06 Jun 2013 01:59:28 +0000

[[]]Pioeneer Intelligent (2003-2007) Honda Accord 6-8 Inch Touchscreen Double-DIN Car DVD Player & In Dash Navigation

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##!!<>!!## Pioeneer Intelligent 2012 HONDA CIVIC left driving 6-8 Inch Touchscreen Double-DIN Car DVD Player & In Dash Navigation

danialjalisasupertinish — Thu, 06 Jun 2013 01:56:42 +0000

[[]]Pioeneer Intelligent 2012 HONDA CIVIC left driving 6-8 Inch Touchscreen Double-DIN Car DVD Player & In Dash Navigation

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+++<>+++ Pioeneer Intelligent 2004-2011Ford Pickup 150 / F-150 / F-Series 6-8 Inch Touchscreen Double-DIN Car DVD Player & In Dash

adrienehoseazoucharichd — Thu, 06 Jun 2013 01:50:23 +0000

[[]]Pioeneer Intelligent 2004-2011Ford Pickup 150 / F-150 / F-Series 6-8 Inch Touchscreen Double-DIN Car DVD Player & In Dash

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Pioeneer Intelligent 2004-2011Ford Pickup 150 / F-150 / F-Series 6-8 Inch Touchscreen Double-DIN Car DVD Player & In Dash

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!@<>@! Pioeneer Intelligent BMW X5 E46 6-8 Inch Touchscreen Double-DIN Car DVD Player & In Dash Navigation

laurencefreddieelskpatr — Thu, 06 Jun 2013 01:38:08 +0000

[[]]Pioeneer Intelligent BMW X5 E46 6-8 Inch Touchscreen Double-DIN Car DVD Player & In Dash Navigation

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Darn Cute Daisies! ... and Hire me as your Admin. Ass't.

handembroidery7 — Thu, 06 Jun 2013 01:23:34 +0000

These daisies keep getting cuter! They’re evolving into a fun little life of their own.

These are simply test samples run on cheapo muslin. I’ll work on the thread pulling making the material pucker next before I sew these into the final product of place mats. I’m envisioning them in a scattered but linear arrangement on bright striped fabric. These samples are displayed on my own home place mats I use every day.

Yes, my products are meant to be used every day. To bring enjoyment on the ordinary days, the Monday through Friday “get yourself up and to work” days that could use a cheery pick-me-up.

Speaking of Mon-Fri “work days” – Hire me as an administrative assistant. I will work intelligently, diligently, quickly, thoughtfully, carefully for your company and your customers and clients. I work excellently independently and also thrive in a team environment. I enjoy investigating issues and solving them. I head problems off at the pass before they get too far. I am exacting and yet highly creative. Professional yet personable. Knowledgeable, intelligent and yet intuitive. I anticipate, I learn, I teach. Sound good? Go ahead and make my day and hire me. I am on Linked in at: www.linkedin.com/pub/lisa-hand/29/b14/b15/

Once hired, I shall be able to also embark on this great adventure of my Etsy shop. It is definitely do-able within my own time. My Bachelor’s Degree in Business and Marketing from R.I.T. afforded me also the exposure of the School for American Craftsman. I always wanted to start my own small business and now with the Internet it is more possible than ever.

Warm regards,

Lisa

The sound of the gifted and depressed

mirrorgirl — Wed, 05 Jun 2013 18:52:34 +0000

Great Potential Press – Guiding Gifted Learners Dr. Webb is co-author of the book Misdiagnosis

Those people that told me, "Wait 'till you ... ." They're wrong as ever!

Alex H. Ahmedinejahd — Wed, 05 Jun 2013 18:26:37 +0000

It’s funny how people who have done things sooner than you or are older than you automatically think that they are smarter, more knowledgeable, wiser and better equipped to handle problems. Throughout my life, I’ve had people, both on a personal level and professional level, tell me, “wait ’till you [fill in the blank].” Some of these things would be “grow up,” “have a significant other,” “get a job,” “get married,” “have children,” “get promoted,” “have to negotiate,” “manage others,” “have to fire someone,” et cetera.

These comments came up throughout my life when I would posit that someone was doing something wrong, and after discussing at length when these people have nothing to say to defend themselves, they’d utter the infamous words, “wait ’till you [fill in the blank].” This was infuriating to me, because what could I say to that? I knew better than that, but still there was nothing that I could say at that moment that would refute their stupid argument. So, for years, I’ve been waiting until I “[fill in the blank].” As it turns out, they’re still wrong and ignorant. At the very worst, it’s a tie, but this would be stretching it.

Whether it is a situation involving significant others, marriage, jobs, careers, friends, children or something else, I have found that people spout “common wisdom” as well as their “experience” as if it were gold and that I would be the great beneficiary of their knowledge. Bullshit! Regardless of whether it’s “common wisdom” or “wisdom” from personal experience, the validity of that “pearl of wisdom” rests on one premise: Is it rational or Just? If it is neither rational or Just then it is wrong. This seems to elude or escape a lot of people.

Some “common wisdom” that I’ve found to be idiotic are comments like: “The world is gray,” — please see previous posts for explanation as to why this is crap — “everything is relative,” “I’m not really lying to my children because it’s a white lie,” “it’s not worth it, just do what your wife wants,” “just pretend your husband’s the king of the castle,” “if you don’t yell at them, they don’t listen,” “you’ve never done the job before, so someone else who has done it is more qualified,” “you should hire someone with prior experience,” “it doesn’t matter the circumstances, firing someone is the most difficult thing in the world,” etc. What I’ve found is that these people were wrong then and they’re still wrong now. Having gone through all of the experiences that these people supposedly had before I did, I can tell everyone with utmost confidence that what doesn’t make sense, doesn’t make sense no matter what one has or has not experienced. This is one of the key tenants of my philosophy: Experience matters naught! Even after I’ve proven people dead wrong, I still get this crap; so when or how will these people learn?

Is it any wonder that we are in a state that we are?

For more, please read my books, “… Under the Constitution with Liberty and Justice for ALL,” available at http://www.CreateSpace.com/3978962 and “The New Constitution for Modern America,” available at http://www.CreateSpace.com/4281897.

The Complex : Meet The Cast.

Cortney — Wed, 05 Jun 2013 17:57:33 +0000

Main Characters:

Mahogany (Mo) Davis – 23 year old, typically quiet, but not afraid to voice her opinions. Intelligent, wise beyond her years.
Danita (Nita) – A quiet but friendly neighbor. Strongly opinionated, but doesn’t like to get into other’s business without reason. Sometimes Sarcastic, but always truthful.
LaReesa (Reesa) – A loud, but caring neighbor. Brutally honest, loves life and has no problem finding fun. Has a no-fucks-given attitude, and treats others as they treats her (attitude wise)
Brendan Thomas– Awkward, but caring neighbor. Often runs errands for older tenants. Stays to himself, but doesn’t mind being around others.
Shawn Richards – The complex super. Often seen as mean, but is actually charismatic and funny. In love with Nita, but can’t get her to take him seriously.

Supporting Characters:

Miranda (Randy) – 24 year old neighbor, formerly abused and now on her own, timid and shy, intelligent. Quickly becomes Mahogany’s best friend.
Ms. Carole – An old lady who has no problem with putting herself in other’s business. Rude, cantankerous, and judgmental. Love’s flirting with men more than half her age.
Lynn – Australian neighbor, Nita’s best friend. Silly and love’s cheering others up.
ShaLi’Quanishah (Quan) – LOUD, 21 year old neighbor. Ratchet, Prostitute/Stripper. Doesn’t care what other’s think of her lifestyle or choices.

Other Characters Will Be Introduced As The Plot Goes Along.

The Midweek Marshmallow: Internets

Zozette — Wed, 05 Jun 2013 15:10:02 +0000

Today’s Midweek Marshmallow is inspired by a post I saw on Girl On The Contrary‘s blog. She spoke about checking up on the internet search terms people had used to get to her blog.

I realized that I had never actually paid any attention to those search terms before, so I went through my own and picked out a few of my favourites to share with you today.

1. “I love short people”

I already love you, whoever you are. If you need some short people to send love to, this is probably the best place. Well done Google.

2. “stupid dolphin head”

Firstly, that is mean. Secondly, dolphins are actually really intelligent marine creatures. – And thirdly, wtf, why here?

3. “Merlin Monroe”

Um. I’m not sure why the internets sent you here, but you were obviously looking for this:

You’re welcome.

Bisous!

Zozette

+!!!!+ Pioeneer Intelligent Mercedes Benz ML W163 6-8 Inch Touchscreen Double-DIN Car DVD Player & In Dash Navigation

aleshiadextermehdikieth — Wed, 05 Jun 2013 12:18:40 +0000

[[]]Pioeneer Intelligent Mercedes Benz ML W163 6-8 Inch Touchscreen Double-DIN Car DVD Player & In Dash Navigation

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++!!++ Pioeneer Intelligent BMW X5 E46 6-8 Inch Touchscreen Double-DIN Car DVD Player & In Dash Navigation

penelopejohnathonledema — Wed, 05 Jun 2013 12:07:42 +0000

[[]]Pioeneer Intelligent BMW X5 E46 6-8 Inch Touchscreen Double-DIN Car DVD Player & In Dash Navigation

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Cheap Discount LG DLEX3470V Get It Now

rukgoontioakpongtri — Wed, 05 Jun 2013 05:29:45 +0000

LG DLEX3470V

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LG DLEX3470V | Product Features

7.3 cu. ft. Capacity
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Do you know what today is?!?!

jacobbarrera — Wed, 05 Jun 2013 02:36:21 +0000

Well, if you were to look at a calendar, depending on where you are in the world, it’s either the 4th or 5th of June! However, at the moment, the 5th doesn’t really matter, actually it doesn’t matter at all! Today, here, in my timezone, and the rest of the United States, it is June 4th. What significance does this have, you may ask, well, let me tell you…

Today is the 21st birthday of three of the most incredible, beautiful and talented young women that I have ever had the opportunity to meet in my entire life, three of the most extraordinary women that I am honored to call my friends: Steph, Alli, and Lauren Boden!!

Where do begin with such amazing human beings, how about freshman year?! Had I not been randomly assigned to have Kyle as my roommate, I highly doubt that I would have been as tight as I am with these lovely women. I can vividly remember returning to my room and finding at least Alli in there, talking to Kyle, you know, seeing what’s up, after all, she only lived down the hall! I can remember all of the classes that we had together, all the homework we did together, all the studying we did together trying to get through chem, bio, etc. Not only are these women intelligent, they are also athletic as they come! Playing multiple varsity sports, I don’t know how they do! These are women I look up to in my own life, women that I know are also there to motivate me! Like I have said before, I don’t think I could be the person I am today without these women! I love you all so much! Happy 21st Birthday, and although I may not physically be with you, know that I am always there for you, from the highs to the lows, you can always count on me!!! Here’s to many, many, many more birthdays to come! I can’t wait for Senior Year, we’re going to rock it! Have a great birthday, and enjoy the birthday dinner, you deserve to have nothing but the best!!! <3

The BIG 21!!!!

Reading Literature Makes Us Smarter and Nicer

shamelesswordartist — Tue, 04 Jun 2013 20:00:10 +0000

Reblogged from Ideas:

Gregory Currie, a professor of philosophy at the University of Nottingham, recently argued in the New York Times that we ought not to claim that literature improves us as people, because there is no “compelling evidence that suggests that people are morally or socially better for reading Tolstoy” or other great books.

Actually, there is such evidence. Raymond Mar, a psychologist at York University in…

TRUTH'S BLOOD

Tyler Roberts — Tue, 04 Jun 2013 18:05:56 +0000

Though this site is used mainly to follow my beekeeping activities and whats going on in the garden, it also contains information about the book I wrote and published in December. I rarely use it to promote the book, but sales are improving and there are some very good comments coming into Amazon and Barnes and Noble. I’ve even sold a few books locally after the owner of the local book store told me I’d likely have my best success placing the book in stores that don’t sell books. “In a book store a single book can just get lost,” she says, “but it will stand out and catch peoples eye in a store that does not sell books.” It made sense to me and I have managed to place the book in three local businesses.

For a self publisher like myself, marketing is the most difficult aspect of producing a book. Without tens of thousands of dollars to advertise its exceedingly difficult to “get your book out there.” Still, the sales on line are encouraging and I thought I would share a few quotes people have left on Amazon and Barnes and Noble.

One last comment. It’s difficult for me to self-promote, just not in my character, but I do hope you will check the book out. With few exceptions, I’ve received nothing but positive feedback. And rest assured, there is another bee report coming up within the next week or so. In the mean time, here are a few quotes, one from the book and the rest from readers.

A quote from the book itself - The house was dimly lit but orderly and well kept. Throw rugs covered the living room floor, window sashes were neatly hung and faded pillows reclined on the couch. Ahead and to their left was the kitchen. The tile floor was neatly swept and dishes were carefully stacked on a drying rack next to the sink. There was no one around, but clearly someone had recently been here.

Monk was checking the single bedroom and bath in the rear of the house when Cliffson discovered something odd. In front of him, on the dining room table, were an ash tray and a deck of cards. Two wooden chairs on opposite sides attended the wooden table and in front of each chair was a stack of chicken bones, one pile larger than the other. The house was so neat and clean it seemed odd to find chicken bones left out on the table, no matter how slicked off they might have been. He was gazing at the table when it dawned on him those weren’t chicken bones. Cliffson reached down and picked one up.

“H-yah!!!” he yelled and flung the bone to the floor. Monk appeared at his side and assessed the piles of bone lying on the table for moment before picking one up for examination.

“Uh-huh, finger bones and they was a using em for chips in their poker game.” Monk gently set the bone back on the pile and with a whimsical look turned to Cliffson.

“Looks to me like they played a few hands too.”

Comments from online book stores -

Devastating, inspiring, intelligent and realistic

“ I found myself completely immersed in this book, intrigued by the events as
they unfolded and, more often than not, questioning how `fictional’ they may or
may not be, or whether we’ll be likely to see (at least some) similar events
unfolding in our world over the coming years. Cleverly written, author Tyler Roberts weaves an engaging story, backed by historical facts…all the more reason to wonder whether his tale is purely fantastical or a mere glimpse into our future. You will find yourself empathizing with the characters (whilst at the same time thanking your lucky stars you’re not in their shoes!) and, despite their hardships, feeling heart-warmed, too.”

Fantastic Imagery - “I found this to be a fascinating story that really makes you stop and think. I love the interplay with the family and friends. They really could be any one of
us. I wonder how any of us would really do in a situation like this. The writing
style makes the imagery so real that I sometimes forgot where I was.
Five stars for me.”

Entertaining and Intelligent – “I loved this story. It’s a very intelligent approach to sharing the lessons of history through a couple of cantankerous old gents in a futuristic setting. The
storyline is creepy, chilling and will keep you up late into the night turning pages even though some folks might be more inclined to read this in the light of day. Quite simply it is a great read. This is an entertaining read. The writing is good and the characters well developed, in fact you will immediately fall in love with the character of Monk. You will feel the fear, pain, suffering, the small joys and little victories right along with the characters. And as with all good writing, this is a book that will stay with you long after you set it aside. Go ahead, strap yourself in – it’s going to be a bumpy ride.”

Title – “I really like the title. At first, I was unsure. I thought maybe it came from a
famous quote, but I couldn’t find one that was close enough to support that
theory. If not, I’m impressed- Man’s past is filled with truth’s shed
blood. That’s a good quote.”

Creepy - “I’m a big fan of creepy and Truth’s Blood has no shortage of creepy. And no one
is safe. So if you have a favorite character, I wouldn’t get too attached. I like authors who make none of their characters safe.”

Colossal success for this debut author. Immensely entertaining – “Colossal success for this debut author. Immensely entertaining. A page turner! If you enjoy this kind of story then you’ll be captivated. It’s a grand story and the characters will grab you, and who doesn’t find a book with great characters a good read? Buy it and climb aboard for the ride!”

Pres Reagan Most Intelligent & Being Black is All Attitude w/o Bitterness

americansquire — Tue, 04 Jun 2013 16:50:33 +0000

Pres Reagan Most Intelligent & Being Black is All Attitude w/o Bitterness
By R.OliverLuce | 06-04-13

President Ronald Reagan may be very intellient as Mr. James Brown has said! But Reagan knew where intelligence and wisdom came from; It came from knowing God** and not just from his acting career. Mr. Brown noticed Reagan was ”a man of conviction”. But let’s be very clear here. A man of true
conviction use to be and must always be associated with justice, righteousness, and the truth.

James Brown: “Black is not a color; it’s an attitude. It’s the attitude of independence, respect and dignity.” But I personally do not believe Mr. James Brown does not mean Black is all about being a jive turkey. Enough of that and other White turkeys lol.

However as for the Black Liberal in our time of America’s Hot Culture War, there is only independence, bitterness, and revenge. God’s grace is not with the Black man of the Liberal Utopian false-guilt complex.

Reference:

http://news.yahoo.com/james-brown-reagan-most-intelligent-president-ve-ever-204815185.html

** Knowing God is knowing His character which is wisdom, honor, patience, love, grace, justice(being a warrior & not to be confused with fairness), attitude and timing.

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Albert Einstein

lord1954man — Tue, 04 Jun 2013 13:20:16 +0000

Albert Einstein was a German-born physicist who developed the theory of relativity. He is considered the most influential physicist of the 20th century.

Near the beginning of his career, Einstein thought that Newtonian mechanics was no longer enough to reconcile the laws of classical mechanics with the laws of the electromagnetic field. This led to the development of his special theory of relativity. He realized, however, that the principle of relativity could also be extended to gravitational fields, and with his subsequent theory of gravitation in 1916, he published a paper on the general theory of relativity. He continued to deal with problems of statistical mechanics and quantum theory, which led to his explanations of particle theory and the motion of molecules. He also investigated the thermal properties of light which laid the foundation of the photon theory of light. In 1917, Einstein applied the general theory of relativity to model the large-scale structure of the universe.^[6]Albert Einstein (English pron.: /ˈælbərt ˈaɪnstaɪn/; German: [ˈalbɐt ˈaɪnʃtaɪn] ( listen); 14 March 1879 – 18 April 1955) was a German-born theoretical physicist who developed the general theory of relativity, one of the two pillars of modern physics(alongside quantum mechanics).^[2]^[3] While best known for his mass–energy equivalence formula E = mc² (which has been dubbed “the world’s most famous equation”),^[4] he received the 1921 Nobel Prize in Physics ”for his services to theoretical physics, and especially for his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect”.^[5] The latter was pivotal in establishing quantum theory.

He was visiting the United States when Adolf Hitler came to power in 1933 and did not go back to Germany, where he had been a professor at the Berlin Academy of Sciences. He settled in the U.S., becoming an American citizen in 1940.^[7]On the eve of World War II, he helped alert President Franklin D. Roosevelt that Germany might be developing an atomic weapon and recommended that the U.S. begin similar research; this eventually led to what would become the Manhattan Project. Einstein was in support of defending the Allied forces, but largely denounced using the new discovery of nuclear fission as a weapon. Later, with the British philosopher Bertrand Russell, Einstein signed the Russell–Einstein Manifesto, which highlighted the danger of nuclear weapons. Einstein was affiliated with the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, until his death in 1955.

Einstein published more than 300 scientific papers along with over 150 non-scientific works.^[6]^[8] His great intellectual achievements and originality have made the word “Einstein” synonymous with genius.^[9]

Biography

Early life and education

Marriages and children

In early 1902, Einstein and Marić had a daughter they named Lieserl, born in Novi Sad where Marić was staying with her parents. Her fate is unknown, but the contents of a letter Einstein wrote to Marić in September 1903 suggest that she was either adopted or died of scarlet fever in infancy.^[34]^[35]

Einstein and Marić married in January 1903. In May 1904, the couple’s first son, Hans Albert Einstein, was born in Bern, Switzerland. Their second son, Eduard, was born in Zurich in July 1910. In 1914, Einstein moved to Berlin, while his wife remained in Zurich with their sons. They divorced on 14 February 1919, having lived apart for five years.

Einstein married Elsa Löwenthal on 2 June 1919, after having had a relationship with her since 1912. She was his first cousin maternally and his second cousin paternally. In 1933, they emigrated to the United States. In 1935, Elsa Einstein was diagnosed with heart and kidney problems and died in December 1936.^[36]

Patent office

Left to right: Conrad Habicht, Maurice Solovine and Einstein, who founded the Olympia Academy

After graduating, Einstein spent almost two frustrating years searching for a teaching post, but Marcel Grossmann’s father helped him secure a job in Bern,^[37] at the Federal Office for Intellectual Property, the patent office, as an assistant examiner.^[38] He evaluated patent applications for electromagnetic devices. In 1903, Einstein’s position at the Swiss Patent Office became permanent, although he was passed over for promotion until he “fully mastered machine technology”.^[39]

Much of his work at the patent office related to questions about transmission of electric signals and electrical-mechanical synchronization of time, two technical problems that show up conspicuously in the thought experiments that eventually led Einstein to his radical conclusions about the nature of light and the fundamental connection between space and time.^[40]

With a few friends he met in Bern, Einstein started a small discussion group, self-mockingly named “The Olympia Academy”, which met regularly to discuss science and philosophy. Their readings included the works of Henri Poincaré, Ernst Mach, and David Hume, which influenced his scientific and philosophical outlook.

Academic career

Einstein’s official 1921 portrait after receiving the Nobel Prize in Physics.

In 1901, his paper ”Folgerungen aus den Capillaritätserscheinungen” (“Conclusions from the Capillarity Phenomena”) was published in the prestigious Annalen der Physik.^[41]^[42] On 30 April 1905, Einstein completed his thesis, with Alfred Kleiner, Professor of Experimental Physics, serving as pro-forma advisor. Einstein was awarded a PhD by the University of Zurich. His dissertation was entitled “A New Determination of Molecular Dimensions”.^[43]^[44] That same year, which has been called Einstein’s annus mirabilis (miracle year), he published four groundbreaking papers, on the photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special relativity, and the equivalence of mass and energy, which were to bring him to the notice of the academic world.

By 1908, he was recognized as a leading scientist, and he was appointed lecturer at the University of Bern. The following year, he quit the patent office and the lectureship to take the position of physics docent^[45]at the University of Zurich. He became a full professor at Karl-Ferdinand University in Prague in 1911. In 1914, he returned to Germany after being appointed director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics (1914–1932)^[46] and a professor at the Humboldt University of Berlin, with a special clause in his contract that freed him from most teaching obligations. He became a member of the Prussian Academy of Sciences. In 1916, Einstein was appointed president of the German Physical Society (1916–1918).^[47]^[48]

During 1911, he had calculated that, based on his new theory of general relativity, light from another star would be bent by the Sun’s gravity. That prediction was claimed confirmed by observations made by a British expedition led by Sir Arthur Eddington during the solar eclipse of 29 May 1919. International media reports of this made Einstein world famous. On 7 November 1919, the leading British newspaper The Timesprinted a banner headline that read: “Revolution in Science – New Theory of the Universe – Newtonian Ideas Overthrown”.^[49] Much later, questions were raised whether the measurements had been accurate enough to support Einstein’s theory. In 1980 historians John Earman and Clark Glymour published an analysis suggesting that Eddington had suppressed unfavorable results.^[50] The two reviewers found possible flaws in Eddington’s selection of data, but their doubts, although widely quoted and, indeed, now with a “mythical” status almost equivalent to the status of the original observations, have not been confirmed.^[51]^[52] Eddington’s selection from the data seems valid and his team indeed made astronomical measurements verifying the theory.^[53]

In 1921, Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for his explanation of the photoelectric effect, as relativity was considered still somewhat controversial. He also received the Copley Medal from the Royal Society in 1925.

Travels abroad

Einstein in N.Y., 1921, his first visit to U.S.

Einstein visited New York City for the first time on 2 April 1921, where he received an official welcome by Mayor Hylan, followed by three weeks of lectures and receptions. He went on to deliver several lectures at Columbia University and Princeton University, and in Washington he accompanied representatives of the National Academy of Science on a visit to the White House. On his return to Europe he was the guest of the British statesman and philosopher Viscount Haldane in London, where he met several renowned scientific, intellectual and political figures, and delivered a lecture at King’s College.^[54]

In 1922, he traveled throughout Asia and later to Palestine, as part of a six-month excursion and speaking tour. His travels included Singapore, Ceylon, and Japan, where he gave a series of lectures to thousands of Japanese. His first lecture in Tokyo lasted four hours, after which he met the emperor and empress at the Imperial Palace where thousands came to watch. Einstein later gave his impressions of the Japanese in a letter to his sons:^[55]^:307 ”Of all the people I have met, I like the Japanese most, as they are modest, intelligent, considerate, and have a feel for art.”^[55]^:308

On his return voyage, he also visited Palestine for 12 days in what would become his only visit to that region. “He was greeted with great British pomp, as if he were a head of state rather than a theoretical physicist”, writes Isaacson. This included a cannon salute upon his arrival at the residence of the British high commissioner, Sir Herbert Samuel. During one reception given to him, the building was “stormed by throngs who wanted to hear him”. In Einstein’s talk to the audience, he expressed his happiness over the event:

I consider this the greatest day of my life. Before, I have always found something to regret in the Jewish soul, and that is the forgetfulness of its own people. Today, I have been made happy by the sight of the Jewish people learning to recognize themselves and to make themselves recognized as a force in the world.^[56]^:308

Emigration to U.S. in 1933

Cartoon of Einstein, who has shed his “Pacifism” wings, standing next to a pillar labeled “World Peace.” He is rolling up his sleeves and holding a sword labeled “Preparedness” (circa 1933).

In February 1933 while on a visit to the United States, Einstein decided not to return to Germany due to the rise to power of the Nazis under Germany’s new chancellor.^[57]^[58] He visited American universities in early 1933 where he undertook his third two-month visiting professorship at the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena. He and his wife Elsa returned by ship to Belgium at the end of March. During the voyage they were informed that their cottage was raided by the Nazis and his personal sailboat had been confiscated. Upon landing in Antwerp on 28 March, he immediately went to the German consulate where he turned in his passport and formally renounced his German citizenship.^[56]

In early April, he learned that the new German government had passed laws barring Jews from holding any official positions, including teaching at universities.^[56] A month later, Einstein’s works were among those targeted by Nazi book burnings, and Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels proclaimed, “Jewish intellectualism is dead.”^[56] Einstein also learned that his name was on a list of assassination targets, with a “$5,000 bounty on his head.”^[56] One German magazine included him in a list of enemies of the German regime with the phrase, “not yet hanged”.^[56]

He resided in Belgium for some months, before temporarily living in England.^[59]^[60] In a letter to his friend, physicist Max Born, who also emigrated from Germany and lived in England, Einstein wrote, “… I must confess that the degree of their brutality and cowardice came as something of a surprise.”^[56]

Portrait taken in 1935 at Princeton

In October 1933 he returned to the U.S. and took up a position at the Institute for Advanced Study at Princeton, New Jersey, that required his presence for six months each year.^[61]^[62] He was still undecided on his future (he had offers from European universities, including Oxford), but in 1935 he arrived at the decision to remain permanently in the United States and apply for citizenship.^[63]^[64]

His affiliation with the Institute for Advance Studies would last until his death in 1955.^[65] He was one of the four first selected (two of the others being John von Neumann and Kurt Gödel) at the new Institute, where he soon developed a close friendship with Gödel. The two would take long walks together discussing their work. His last assistant was Bruria Kaufman, who later became a physicist. During this period, Einstein tried to develop a unified field theory and to refute the accepted interpretation of quantum physics, both unsuccessfully.

Other scientists also fled to America. Among them were Nobel laureates and professors of theoretical physics. With so many other Jewish scientists now forced by circumstances to live in America, often working side by side, Einstein wrote to a friend, “For me the most beautiful thing is to be in contact with a few fine Jews—a few millennia of a civilized past do mean something after all.” In another letter he writes, “In my whole life I have never felt so Jewish as now.”^[56]

World War II and the Manhattan Project

In 1939, a group of Hungarian scientists that included emigre physicist Leó Szilárd attempted to alert Washington of ongoing Nazi atomic bomb research. The group’s warnings were discounted.^[66] Einstein and Szilárd, along with other refugees such as Edward Teller and Eugene Wigner, “regarded it as their responsibility to alert Americans to the possibility that German scientists might win the race to build an atomic bomb, and to warn that Hitler would be more than willing to resort to such a weapon.”^[55]^:630^[67] In the summer of 1939, a few months before the beginning of World War II in Europe, Einstein was persuaded to lend his prestige by writing a letter with Szilárd to President Franklin D. Roosevelt to alert him of the possibility. The letter also recommended that the U.S. government pay attention to and become directly involved in uranium research and associated chain reaction research.

The letter is believed to be “arguably the key stimulus for the U.S. adoption of serious investigations into nuclear weapons on the eve of the U.S. entry into World War II”.^[68] President Roosevelt could not take the risk of allowing Hitler to possess atomic bombs first. As a result of Einstein’s letter and his meetings with Roosevelt, the U.S. entered the “race” to develop the bomb, drawing on its “immense material, financial, and scientific resources” to initiate the Manhattan Project. It became the only country to successfully develop an atomic bomb during World War II.

For Einstein, “war was a disease … [and] he called for resistance to war.” But in 1933, after Hitler assumed full power in Germany, “he renounced pacifism altogether … In fact, he urged the Western powers to prepare themselves against another German onslaught.”^[69]^:110 In 1954, a year before his death, Einstein said to his old friend, Linus Pauling, “I made one great mistake in my life — when I signed the letter to President Roosevelt recommending that atom bombs be made; but there was some justification — the danger that the Germans would make them …”^[70]

U.S. citizenship

Einstein accepting U.S. citizenshipcertificate from judge Phillip Forman

Einstein became an American citizen in 1940. Not long after settling into his career at Princeton, he expressed his appreciation of the “meritocracy” in American culture when compared to Europe. According to Isaacson, he recognized the “right of individuals to say and think what they pleased”, without social barriers, and as result, the individual was “encouraged” to be more creative, a trait he valued from his own early education. Einstein writes:

What makes the new arrival devoted to this country is the democratic trait among the people. No one humbles himself before another person or class … American youth has the good fortune not to have its outlook troubled by outworn traditions.^[56]^:432

As a member of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) at Princeton who campaigned for the civil rights of African Americans, Einstein corresponded with civil rights activist W. E. B. Du Bois, and in 1946 Einstein called racism America’s “worst disease”.^[71] He later stated, “Race prejudice has unfortunately become an American tradition which is uncritically handed down from one generation to the next. The only remedies are enlightenment and education”.^[72]

Einstein in 1947

During the final stage of his life, Einstein transitioned to a vegetarian lifestyle,^[73] arguing that “the vegetarian manner of living by its purely physical effect on the human temperament would most beneficially influence the lot of mankind”.^[74]

After the death of Israel’s first president, Chaim Weizmann, in November 1952, Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion offered Einstein the position of President of Israel, a mostly ceremonial post.^[75] The offer was presented by Israel’s ambassador in Washington, Abba Eban, who explained that the offer “embodies the deepest respect which the Jewish people can repose in any of its sons”.^[55]^:522 However, Einstein declined, and wrote in his response that he was “deeply moved”, and “at once saddened and ashamed” that he could not accept it:

All my life I have dealt with objective matters, hence I lack both the natural aptitude and the experience to deal properly with people and to exercise official function. I am the more distressed over these circumstances because my relationship with the Jewish people became my strongest human tie once I achieved complete clarity about our precarious position among the nations of the world.^[55]^:522^[75]^[76]

Death

The New York World-Telegramannounces Einstein’s death on 18 April 1955.

On 17 April 1955, Albert Einstein experienced internal bleeding caused by the rupture of an abdominal aortic aneurysm, which had previously been reinforced surgically by Dr. Rudolph Nissen in 1948.^[77] He took the draft of a speech he was preparing for a television appearance commemorating the State of Israel’s seventh anniversary with him to the hospital, but he did not live long enough to complete it.^[78] Einstein refused surgery, saying: “I want to go when I want. It is tasteless to prolong life artificially. I have done my share, it is time to go. I will do it elegantly.”^[79] He died in Princeton Hospital early the next morning at the age of 76, having continued to work until near the end.

During the autopsy, the pathologist of Princeton Hospital, Thomas Stoltz Harvey, removed Einstein’s brain for preservation without the permission of his family, in the hope that the neuroscience of the future would be able to discover what made Einstein so intelligent.^[80] Einstein’s remains were cremated and his ashes were scattered at an undisclosed location.^[81]^[82]

In his lecture at Einstein’s memorial, nuclear physicist Robert Oppenheimer summarized his impression of him as a person: “He was almost wholly without sophistication and wholly without worldliness … There was always with him a wonderful purity at once childlike and profoundly stubborn.”^[69]

Scientific career

Albert Einstein in 1904

The photoelectric effect. Incoming photons on the left strike a metal plate (bottom), and eject electrons, depicted as flying off to the right.

Throughout his life, Einstein published hundreds of books and articles.^[8]^[10] In addition to the work he did by himself he also collaborated with other scientists on additional projects including the Bose–Einstein statistics, the Einstein refrigerator and others.^[83]

1905 – Annus Mirabilis papers

Main articles: Annus Mirabilis papers, Photoelectric effect, Special theory of relativity, and Mass–energy equivalence

The Annus Mirabilis papers are four articles pertaining to the photoelectric effect (which gave rise to quantum theory), Brownian motion, the special theory of relativity, and E = mc² that Albert Einstein published in the Annalen der Physik scientific journal in 1905. These four works contributed substantially to the foundation of modern physics and changed views on space, time, and matter. The four papers are:

Title (translated)	Area of focus	Received	Published	Significance
On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the Production and Transformation of Light	Photoelectric effect	18 March	9 June	Resolved an unsolved puzzle by suggesting that energy is exchanged only in discrete amounts (quanta).^[84] This idea was pivotal to the early development of quantum theory.^[85]
On the Motion of Small Particles Suspended in a Stationary Liquid, as Required by the Molecular Kinetic Theory of Heat	Brownian motion	11 May	18 July	Explained empirical evidence for the atomic theory, supporting the application of statistical physics.
On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies	Special relativity	30 June	26 September	Reconciled Maxwell’s equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics by introducing major changes to mechanics close to the speed of light, resulting from analysis based on empirical evidence that the speed of light is independent of the motion of the observer.^[86] Discredited the concept of a “luminiferous ether.”^[87]
Does the Inertia of a Body Depend Upon Its Energy Content?	Matter–energy equivalence	27 September	21 November	Equivalence of matter and energy, E = mc² (and by implication, the ability of gravity to “bend” light), the existence of “rest energy”, and the basis of nuclear energy.

Thermodynamic fluctuations and statistical physics

Main articles: Statistical mechanics, thermal fluctuations, and statistical physics

Albert Einstein’s first paper^[88] submitted in 1900 to Annalen der Physik was on capillary attraction. It was published in 1901 with the title “Folgerungen aus den Kapillarität Erscheinungen,” which translates as “Conclusions from the capillarity phenomena”. Two papers he published in 1902–1903 (thermodynamics) attempted to interpret atomic phenomena from a statistical point of view. These papers were the foundation for the 1905 paper on Brownian motion, which showed that Brownian movement can be construed as firm evidence that molecules exist. His research in 1903 and 1904 was mainly concerned with the effect of finite atomic size on diffusion phenomena.^[88]

General principles

He articulated the principle of relativity. This was understood by Hermann Minkowski to be a generalization of rotational invariance from space to space-time. Other principles postulated by Einstein and later vindicated are the principle of equivalence and the principle of adiabatic invariance of the quantum number.

Theory of relativity and E = mc²

Main article: History of special relativity

Einstein’s “Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper” (“On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies”) was received on 30 June 1905 and published 26 September of that same year. It reconciles Maxwell’s equations for electricity and magnetism with the laws of mechanics, by introducing major changes to mechanics close to the speed of light. This later became known as Einstein’s special theory of relativity.

Consequences of this include the time-space frame of a moving body appearing to slow down and contract (in the direction of motion) when measured in the frame of the observer. This paper also argued that the idea of a luminiferous aether – one of the leading theoretical entities in physics at the time – was superfluous.^[89]

In his paper on mass–energy equivalence Einstein produced E = mc² from his special relativity equations.^[90] Einstein’s 1905 work on relativity remained controversial for many years, but was accepted by leading physicists, starting with Max Planck.^[91]^[92]

Photons and energy quanta

Main articles: Photon and Quantum

In a 1905 paper,^[93] Einstein postulated that light itself consists of localized particles (quanta). Einstein’s light quanta were nearly universally rejected by all physicists, including Max Planck and Niels Bohr. This idea only became universally accepted in 1919, with Robert Millikan’s detailed experiments on the photoelectric effect, and with the measurement of Compton scattering.

Einstein concluded that each wave of frequency f is associated with a collection of photons with energy hf each, where h is Planck’s constant. He does not say much more, because he is not sure how the particles are related to the wave. But he does suggest that this idea would explain certain experimental results, notably the photoelectric effect.^[94]

Quantized atomic vibrations

Main article: Einstein solid

In 1907 Einstein proposed a model of matter where each atom in a lattice structure is an independent harmonic oscillator. In the Einstein model, each atom oscillates independently – a series of equally spaced quantized states for each oscillator. Einstein was aware that getting the frequency of the actual oscillations would be different, but he nevertheless proposed this theory because it was a particularly clear demonstration that quantum mechanics could solve the specific heat problem in classical mechanics. Peter Debye refined this model.^[95]

Adiabatic principle and action-angle variables

Main article: Old quantum theory

Throughout the 1910s, quantum mechanics expanded in scope to cover many different systems. After Ernest Rutherford discovered the nucleus and proposed that electrons orbit like planets, Niels Bohr was able to show that the same quantum mechanical postulates introduced by Planck and developed by Einstein would explain the discrete motion of electrons in atoms, and the periodic table of the elements.

Einstein contributed to these developments by linking them with the 1898 arguments Wilhelm Wien had made. Wien had shown that the hypothesis of adiabatic invariance of a thermal equilibrium state allows all the blackbody curves at different temperature to be derived from one another by a simple shifting process. Einstein noted in 1911 that the same adiabatic principle shows that the quantity which is quantized in any mechanical motion must be an adiabatic invariant. Arnold Sommerfeld identified this adiabatic invariant as the action variable of classical mechanics. The law that the action variable is quantized was a basic principle of the quantum theory as it was known between 1900 and 1925.^{[citation needed]}

Wave–particle duality

Einstein during his visit to the United States

Main article: Wave–particle duality

Although the patent office promoted Einstein to Technical Examiner Second Class in 1906, he had not given up on academia. In 1908, he became a privatdozent at the University of Bern.^[96] In “über die Entwicklung unserer Anschauungen über das Wesen und die Konstitution der Strahlung” (“The Development of Our Views on the Composition and Essence of Radiation”), on the quantization of light, and in an earlier 1909 paper, Einstein showed that Max Planck’s energy quanta must have well-defined momenta and act in some respects as independent, point-like particles. This paper introduced the photon concept (although the name photon was introduced later by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1926) and inspired the notion of wave–particle duality in quantum mechanics.

Theory of critical opalescence

Main article: Critical opalescence

Einstein returned to the problem of thermodynamic fluctuations, giving a treatment of the density variations in a fluid at its critical point. Ordinarily the density fluctuations are controlled by the second derivative of the free energy with respect to the density. At the critical point, this derivative is zero, leading to large fluctuations. The effect of density fluctuations is that light of all wavelengths is scattered, making the fluid look milky white. Einstein relates this to Raleigh scattering, which is what happens when the fluctuation size is much smaller than the wavelength, and which explains why the sky is blue.^[97] Einstein quantitatively derived critical opalescence from a treatment of density fluctuations, and demonstrated how both the effect and Rayleigh scattering originate from the atomistic constitution of matter.

Zero-point energy

Main article: Zero-point energy

Einstein’s physical intuition led him to note that Planck’s oscillator energies had an incorrect zero point. He modified Planck’s hypothesis by stating that the lowest energy state of an oscillator is equal to ¹⁄₂hf, to half the energy spacing between levels. This argument, which was made in 1913 in collaboration with Otto Stern, was based on the thermodynamics of a diatomic molecule which can split apart into two free atoms.

General relativity and the Equivalence Principle

Main article: History of general relativity

See also: Principle of equivalence, Theory of relativity, and Einstein field equations

Eddington’s photograph of asolar eclipse.

General relativity (GR) is a theory of gravitation that was developed by Albert Einstein between 1907 and 1915. According to general relativity, the observed gravitational attraction between masses results from the warping of space and time by those masses. General relativity has developed into an essential tool in modern astrophysics. It provides the foundation for the current understanding of black holes, regions of space where gravitational attraction is so strong that not even light can escape.

As Albert Einstein later said, the reason for the development of general relativity was that the preference of inertial motions within special relativity was unsatisfactory, while a theory which from the outset prefers no state of motion (even accelerated ones) should appear more satisfactory.^[98] So in 1908 he published an article on acceleration under special relativity. In that article, he argued that free fall is really inertial motion, and that for a freefalling observer the rules of special relativity must apply. This argument is called the Equivalence principle. In the same article, Einstein also predicted the phenomenon of gravitational time dilation. In 1911, Einstein published another article expanding on the 1907 article, in which additional effects such as the deflection of light by massive bodies were predicted.

Hole argument and Entwurf theory

Main article: Hole argument

While developing general relativity, Einstein became confused about the gauge invariance in the theory. He formulated an argument that led him to conclude that a general relativistic field theory is impossible. He gave up looking for fully generally covariant tensor equations, and searched for equations that would be invariant under general linear transformations only.

In June 1913 the Entwurf (“draft”) theory was the result of these investigations. As its name suggests, it was a sketch of a theory, with the equations of motion supplemented by additional gauge fixing conditions. Simultaneously less elegant and more difficult than general relativity, after more than two years of intensive work Einstein abandoned the theory in November 1915 after realizing that the hole argument was mistaken.^[99]

Cosmology

Main article: Cosmology

In 1917, Einstein applied the General theory of relativity to model the structure of the universe as a whole. He wanted the universe to be eternal and unchanging, but this type of universe is not consistent with relativity. To fix this, Einstein modified the general theory by introducing a new notion, the cosmological constant. With a positive cosmological constant, the universe could be an eternal static sphere.^[100]

Einstein in his office at theUniversity of Berlin.

Einstein believed a spherical static universe is philosophically preferred, because it would obey Mach’s principle. He had shown that general relativity incorporates Mach’s principle to a certain extent in frame dragging by gravitomagnetic fields, but he knew that Mach’s idea would not work if space goes on forever. In a closed universe, he believed that Mach’s principle would hold. Mach’s principle has generated much controversy over the years.

Modern quantum theory

Main article: Schrödinger equation

Einstein was displeased with quantum theory and mechanics, despite its acceptance by other physicists, stating “God doesn’t play with dice.” As Einstein passed away at the age of 76 he still would not accept quantum theory.^[101] In 1917, at the height of his work on relativity, Einstein published an article in Physikalische Zeitschrift that proposed the possibility of stimulated emission, the physical process that makes possible the maser and the laser.^[102] This article showed that the statistics of absorption and emission of light would only be consistent with Planck’s distribution law if the emission of light into a mode with n photons would be enhanced statistically compared to the emission of light into an empty mode. This paper was enormously influential in the later development of quantum mechanics, because it was the first paper to show that the statistics of atomic transitions had simple laws. Einstein discovered Louis de Broglie’s work, and supported his ideas, which were received skeptically at first. In another major paper from this era, Einstein gave a wave equation for de Broglie waves, which Einstein suggested was the Hamilton–Jacobi equation of mechanics. This paper would inspire Schrödinger’s work of 1926.

Bose–Einstein statistics

Main article: Bose–Einstein condensation

In 1924, Einstein received a description of a statistical model from Indian physicist Satyendra Nath Bose, based on a counting method that assumed that light could be understood as a gas of indistinguishable particles. Einstein noted that Bose’s statistics applied to some atoms as well as to the proposed light particles, and submitted his translation of Bose’s paper to the Zeitschrift für Physik. Einstein also published his own articles describing the model and its implications, among them the Bose–Einstein condensate phenomenon that some particulates should appear at very low temperatures.^[103] It was not until 1995 that the first such condensate was produced experimentally by Eric Allin Cornell and Carl Wieman using ultra-cooling equipment built at theNIST–JILA laboratory at the University of Colorado at Boulder.^[104] Bose–Einstein statistics are now used to describe the behaviors of any assembly of bosons. Einstein’s sketches for this project may be seen in the Einstein Archive in the library of the Leiden University.^[83]

Energy momentum pseudotensor

Main article: Stress-energy-momentum pseudotensor

General relativity includes a dynamical spacetime, so it is difficult to see how to identify the conserved energy and momentum. Noether’s theorem allows these quantities to be determined from a Lagrangian with translation invariance, but general covariance makes translation invariance into something of a gauge symmetry. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity by Noether’s presecriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason.

Einstein argued that this is true for fundamental reasons, because the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was in fact the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. This approach has been echoed by Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz, and others, and has become standard.

The use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was heavily criticized in 1917 by Erwin Schrödinger and others.

Unified field theory

Main article: Classical unified field theories

Following his research on general relativity, Einstein entered into a series of attempts to generalize his geometric theory of gravitation to include electromagnetism as another aspect of a single entity. In 1950, he described his “unified field theory” in a Scientific American article entitled “On the Generalized Theory of Gravitation”.^[105] Although he continued to be lauded for his work, Einstein became increasingly isolated in his research, and his efforts were ultimately unsuccessful. In his pursuit of a unification of the fundamental forces, Einstein ignored some mainstream developments in physics, most notably the strong and weak nuclear forces, which were not well understood until many years after his death. Mainstream physics, in turn, largely ignored Einstein’s approaches to unification. Einstein’s dream of unifying other laws of physics with gravity motivates modern quests for a theory of everything and in particular string theory, where geometrical fields emerge in a unified quantum-mechanical setting.

Wormholes

Main article: Wormhole

Einstein collaborated with others to produce a model of a wormhole. His motivation was to model elementary particles with charge as a solution of gravitational field equations, in line with the program outlined in the paper “Do Gravitational Fields play an Important Role in the Constitution of the Elementary Particles?”. These solutions cut and pasted Schwarzschild black holes to make a bridge between two patches.

If one end of a wormhole was positively charged, the other end would be negatively charged. These properties led Einstein to believe that pairs of particles and antiparticles could be described in this way.

Einstein–Cartan theory

Main article: Einstein–Cartan theory

In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the torsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s.

Equations of motion

Main article: Einstein–Infeld–Hoffmann equations

The theory of general relativity has a fundamental law – the Einstein equations which describe how space curves, the geodesic equation which describes how particles move may be derived from the Einstein equations.

Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black hole, would move on a trajectory which is determined by the Einstein equations themselves, not by a new law. So Einstein proposed that the path of a singular solution, like a black hole, would be determined to be a geodesic from general relativity itself.

This was established by Einstein, Infeld, and Hoffmann for pointlike objects without angular momentum, and by Roy Kerr for spinning objects.

Other investigations

Main article: Einstein’s unsuccessful investigations

Einstein conducted other investigations that were unsuccessful and abandoned. These pertain to force, superconductivity, gravitational waves, and other research. Please see the main article for details.

Collaboration with other scientists

The 1927 Solvay Conference in Brussels, a gathering of the world’s top physicists. Einstein in the center.

In addition to longtime collaborators Leopold Infeld, Nathan Rosen, Peter Bergmann and others, Einstein also had some one-shot collaborations with various scientists.

Einstein–de Haas experiment

Main article: Einstein–de Haas effect

Einstein and De Haas demonstrated that magnetization is due to the motion of electrons, nowadays known to be the spin. In order to show this, they reversed the magnetization in an iron bar suspended on a torsion pendulum. They confirmed that this leads the bar to rotate, because the electron’s angular momentum changes as the magnetization changes. This experiment needed to be sensitive, because the angular momentum associated with electrons is small, but it definitively established that electron motion of some kind is responsible for magnetization.

Schrödinger gas model

Einstein suggested to Erwin Schrödinger that he might be able to reproduce the statistics of a Bose–Einstein gas by considering a box. Then to each possible quantum motion of a particle in a box associate an independent harmonic oscillator. Quantizing these oscillators, each level will have an integer occupation number, which will be the number of particles in it.

This formulation is a form of second quantization, but it predates modern quantum mechanics. Erwin Schrödinger applied this to derive the thermodynamic properties of a semiclassical ideal gas. Schrödinger urged Einstein to add his name as co-author, although Einstein declined the invitation.^[106]

Einstein refrigerator

Main article: Einstein refrigerator

In 1926, Einstein and his former student Leó Szilárd co-invented (and in 1930, patented) the Einstein refrigerator. This absorption refrigerator was then revolutionary for having no moving parts and using only heat as an input.^[107] On 11 November 1930, U.S. Patent 1,781,541 was awarded to Albert Einstein and Leó Szilárd for the refrigerator. Their invention was not immediately put into commercial production, as the most promising of their patents were quickly bought up by the Swedish company Electrolux to protect its refrigeration technology from competition.^[108]

Bohr versus Einstein

Main article: Bohr–Einstein debates

Einstein and Niels Bohr, 1925

The Bohr–Einstein debates were a series of public disputes about quantum mechanics between Albert Einstein and Niels Bohr who were two of its founders. Their debates are remembered because of their importance to the philosophy of science.^[109]^[110]^[111]

Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox

Main article: EPR paradox

In 1935, Einstein returned to the question of quantum mechanics. He considered how a measurement on one of two entangled particles would affect the other. He noted, along with his collaborators, that by performing different measurements on the distant particle, either of position or momentum, different properties of the entangled partner could be discovered without disturbing it in any way.

He then used a hypothesis of local realism to conclude that the other particle had these properties already determined. The principle he proposed is that if it is possible to determine what the answer to a position or momentum measurement would be, without in any way disturbing the particle, then the particle actually has values of position or momentum.

This principle distilled the essence of Einstein’s objection to quantum mechanics. As a physical principle, it was shown to be incorrect when the Aspect experiment of 1982 confirmed Bell’s theorem, which had been promulgated in 1964.

Political and religious views

Main articles: Albert Einstein’s political views and Albert Einstein’s religious views

Albert Einstein, seen here with his wifeElsa Einstein and Zionist leaders, including future President of Israel Chaim Weizmann, his wife Dr. Vera Weizmann, Menahem Ussishkin, and Ben-Zion Mossinson on arrival in New York City in 1921.

Albert Einstein’s political view was in favor of socialism and critical of capitalism, which he detailed in essays like Why Socialism?;^[112]^[113] his political views emerged publicly in the middle of the 20th century due to his fame and reputation for genius. Einstein offered to and was called on to give judgments and opinions on matters often unrelated to theoretical physics or mathematics.^[114]

Einstein’s views about religious belief have been collected from interviews and original writings. He said he believed in the ”pantheistic” God of Baruch Spinoza, but not in a personal god, a belief he criticized. He called himself an agnostic, while disassociating himself from the label atheist.^[115]

Love of music

Einstein developed an appreciation of music at an early age. His mother played the piano reasonably well and wanted her son to learn the violin, not only to instill in him a love of music but also to help him assimilate German culture. According to conductor Leon Botstein, Einstein is said to have begun playing when he was five, but did not enjoy it at that age.^[116]

When he turned thirteen, however, he discovered the violin sonatas of Mozart. “Einstein fell in love” with Mozart’s music, notes Botstein, and learned to play music more willingly. According to Einstein, he taught himself to play without “ever practicing systematically”, adding that “Love is a better teacher than a sense of duty.”^[116] At age seventeen, he was heard by a school examiner in Aarau as he played Beethoven’s violin sonatas, the examiner stating afterward that his playing was “remarkable and revealing of ‘great insight.’” What struck the examiner, writes Botstein, was that Einstein “displayed a deep love of the music, a quality that was and remains in short supply. Music possessed an unusual meaning for this student.”^[116]

Botstein notes that music assumed a pivotal and permanent role in Einstein’s life from that period on. Although the idea of becoming a professional himself was not on his mind at any time, among those with whom Einstein played chamber musicwere a few professionals, and he performed for private audiences and friends. Chamber music also became a regular part of his social life while living in Bern, Zurich, and Berlin, where he played with Max Planck and his son, among others. In 1931, while engaged in research at California Institute of Technology, he visited the Zoellner family conservatory in Los Angeles and played some of Beethoven and Mozart’s works with members of the Zoellner Quartet, recently retired from two decades of acclaimed touring all across the United States; Einstein later presented the family patriarch with an autographed photograph as a memento.^[117]^[118] Near the end of his life, when the young Juilliard Quartet visited him in Princeton, he played his violin with them; although they slowed the tempo to accommodate his lesser technical abilities, Botstein notes the quartet was “impressed by Einstein’s level of coordination and intonation.”^[116]

Non-scientific legacy

While travelling, Einstein wrote daily to his wife Elsa and adopted stepdaughters Margot and Ilse. The letters were included in the papers bequeathed to The Hebrew University. Margot Einstein permitted the personal letters to be made available to the public, but requested that it not be done until twenty years after her death (she died in 1986^[119]). Barbara Wolff, of The Hebrew University’s Albert Einstein Archives, told the BBC that there are about 3,500 pages of private correspondence written between 1912 and 1955.^[120]

Einstein bequeathed the royalties from use of his image to The Hebrew University of Jerusalem. Corbis, successor to The Roger Richman Agency, licenses the use of his name and associated imagery, as agent for the university.^[121]

In popular culture

In the period before World War II, Einstein was so well known in America that he would be stopped on the street by people wanting him to explain “that theory”. He finally figured out a way to handle the incessant inquiries. He told his inquirers “Pardon me, sorry! Always I am mistaken for Professor Einstein.”^[122]

Einstein has been the subject of or inspiration for many novels, films, plays, and works of music.^[123] He is a favorite model for depictions of mad scientists and absent-minded professors; his expressive face and distinctive hairstyle have been widely copied and exaggerated. Time magazine’s Frederic Golden wrote that Einstein was “a cartoonist’s dream come true”.^[124]

Awards and honors

Einstein received numerous awards and honors, including the Nobel Prize in Physics.

Quotes by Albert Einstein

“Imagination is more important than knowledge. For knowledge is limited, whereas imagination embraces the entire world, stimulating progress, giving birth to evolution.”

“Try not to become a man of success, but rather try to become a man of value”

“Falling in love is not at all the most stupid thing that people do — but gravitation cannot be held responsible for it.”

“The important thing is not to stop questioning; curiosity has its own reason for existing.”