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	<title>marx &amp;laquo; WordPress.com Tag Feed</title>
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	<description>Feed of posts on WordPress.com tagged "marx"</description>
	<pubDate>Tue, 17 Nov 2009 05:34:17 +0000</pubDate>

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<title><![CDATA[Rethinking Marxism: Temporal Value Theory in a Moment of Crisis; Roundtable on the Economic Crisis]]></title>
<link>http://kapitalism101.wordpress.com/2009/11/17/rethinking-marxism-temporal-value-theory-in-a-moment-of-crisis-roundtable-on-the-economic-crisis/</link>
<pubDate>Tue, 17 Nov 2009 04:52:51 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>kapitalism101</dc:creator>
<guid>http://kapitalism101.wordpress.com/2009/11/17/rethinking-marxism-temporal-value-theory-in-a-moment-of-crisis-roundtable-on-the-economic-crisis/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Andrew Kliman: Contradictions of Capitalist Value Production: Internal, Inevitable, Insuperable Alan]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><h4 style="text-align:center;">Andrew Kliman: Contradictions of Capitalist Value Production: Internal, Inevitable, Insuperable</h4>
<h4 style="text-align:center;">Alan Freeman: How Did 1929 End?</h4>
<h4 style="text-align:center;">Radhika Desai: The Demand Problem in the Current Crisis</h4>
<h4 style="text-align:center;">David Calnitsky: Capitalist Competition, Self-Organization and Crisis</h4>
<h4 style="text-align:center;">Brendan Cooney: Crisis, Value and Marx&#8217;s Order of Operations</h4>
<p><a href="http://kapitalism101.wordpress.com/files/2009/09/photo-3.jpg"><img class="alignleft size-medium wp-image-285" title="Photo 3" src="http://kapitalism101.wordpress.com/files/2009/09/photo-3.jpg?w=300" alt="" width="189" height="143" /></a></p>
<p>This is video from a roundtable on the economic crisis held during this year&#8217;s Rethinking Marxism conference in Amherst Mass. Each panelist&#8217;s presentation stands on its own so they need not be viewed in any specific order.  A brief bio proceeds each video as well as my own short summary of their argument. This is merely to help viewers decide what to watch and to give some brief context for the uninitated. The paper which my own talk is based on will be linked beneath my video.</p>
<p><span style="text-decoration:underline;"><span style="color:#000000;"><strong>Andrew Kliman </strong></span></span>is a professor of economics at Pace University in New York. He is a leading figure in the Temporal Single System Interpretation (TSSI) which seeks to refute various claims of inconsistency within Marx&#8217;s value theory. His book &#8220;Reclaiming Marx&#8217;s Capital&#8221; is an important work in the field. I have discussed these ideas in my video &#8220;What Transformation Problem?&#8221;. I have posted an interview with Kliman from April of 2009. The TSSI also has important implications over debates as to the validity of Marx&#8217;s theory of the Tendency of the Rate of Profit to Fall. Kliman has just completed some important empirical research into the origins of the current crisis which claims that the profit rate has been falling since the 1940&#8217;s and that this long-term decline in profit rate sets the context for understanding this crisis. Kliman&#8217;s paper connects the theory of the falling rate of profit to the contradiction within the commodity form itself, between the use-value and exchange value of a commodity. He then meditates on the political implications of such an understanding of capitalist crisis.</p>
<p><span style='text-align:center; display: block;'><object width='425' height='350'><param name='movie' value='http://www.youtube.com/v/LJJbmRcOlCQ&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' /><param name='allowfullscreen' value='true' /><param name='wmode' value='transparent' /><embed src='http://www.youtube.com/v/LJJbmRcOlCQ&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' type='application/x-shockwave-flash' allowfullscreen='true' width='425' height='350' wmode='transparent'></embed></object></span></p>
<p><span style='text-align:center; display: block;'><object width='425' height='350'><param name='movie' value='http://www.youtube.com/v/O47sXexnM9A&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' /><param name='allowfullscreen' value='true' /><param name='wmode' value='transparent' /><embed src='http://www.youtube.com/v/O47sXexnM9A&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' type='application/x-shockwave-flash' allowfullscreen='true' width='425' height='350' wmode='transparent'></embed></object></span></p>
<p><span style="text-decoration:underline;"><strong>AlanFeeman</strong></span> works as an economist for the Greater London Authority and is currently a visiting professor at the University of Manitoba. He and Andrew Kliman edit the journal &#8220;<a href="http://www.copejournal.org/">Critique of Political Economy&#8221;</a>. He and panelist Radhika Desai co-edit the book series <a href="http://www.radicaldemon.org/">&#8220;The Future of World Capitalism&#8221;</a>. Freeman is an influential figure in the TSSI field. You can find his papers <a href="http://econpapers.repec.org/RAS/pfr102.htm">at his website.</a> In this talk Freeman extends his critique of contemporary marxist academia into a critique of the way in which the concept of an economic &#8220;law&#8221; is understood. Seeking to distance Marx from positivist conceptions of law Freeman invites us to think about the way in which free will and human action are brought to the foreground during a crisis, requiring the great, potentially violent, exogenous acts in order to restore capital accumulation. As far as I know Freeman has not published any papers on this topic yet though you can hear him speaking about similar matters at his <a href="http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VPp7vSKu5UI">Left Forum</a> talk. If you write to him he might be able to send you a finisehd draft of this paper.</p>
<p><span style='text-align:center; display: block;'><object width='425' height='350'><param name='movie' value='http://www.youtube.com/v/mfny7V0Td7A&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' /><param name='allowfullscreen' value='true' /><param name='wmode' value='transparent' /><embed src='http://www.youtube.com/v/mfny7V0Td7A&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' type='application/x-shockwave-flash' allowfullscreen='true' width='425' height='350' wmode='transparent'></embed></object></span></p>
<p><span style='text-align:center; display: block;'><object width='425' height='350'><param name='movie' value='http://www.youtube.com/v/yRvS4Rdn3Sw&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' /><param name='allowfullscreen' value='true' /><param name='wmode' value='transparent' /><embed src='http://www.youtube.com/v/yRvS4Rdn3Sw&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' type='application/x-shockwave-flash' allowfullscreen='true' width='425' height='350' wmode='transparent'></embed></object></span></p>
<p><span style="text-decoration:underline;"><strong>Radhika Desa</strong></span>i is professor of political studies at the University of Manitoba. As well multiple collaborations with Alan Freeman, she is author of &#8220;Slouching Towards Ayodhya: From Congress to Hindutva in Indian Politics&#8221; and &#8220;Intellectuals and Socialism: &#8216;Social Democrats&#8217; and the Labour Party&#8221;.  Interested viewers might check out her article <a href="http://21stcenturysocialism.com/article/neoliberalism_self-destructs_01733.html">Neoliberalism Self-Destructs </a>and her inteview on <a href="http://www.againstthegrain.org/program/173/id/161422/mon-4-13-09-clear-about-imperialism">Against The Grain on the topic of imperialism</a>. Desai is a defender of Keynes and sees him as presenting a more radical critique of capitalism than is usually acknowledged. See Desai and Freeman&#8217;s &#8220;<a href="http://canadiandimension.com/articles/2445/">Keynes and the Crisis</a>&#8221; for more on this angle. Her paper in this panel follows in that spirit, arguing that a full understanding of this crisis is not possible without addressing problems of effective demand.</p>
<p><span style='text-align:center; display: block;'><object width='425' height='350'><param name='movie' value='http://www.youtube.com/v/NxnE2z4uTCw&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' /><param name='allowfullscreen' value='true' /><param name='wmode' value='transparent' /><embed src='http://www.youtube.com/v/NxnE2z4uTCw&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' type='application/x-shockwave-flash' allowfullscreen='true' width='425' height='350' wmode='transparent'></embed></object></span></p>
<p><span style='text-align:center; display: block;'><object width='425' height='350'><param name='movie' value='http://www.youtube.com/v/RY03FNEZezM&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' /><param name='allowfullscreen' value='true' /><param name='wmode' value='transparent' /><embed src='http://www.youtube.com/v/RY03FNEZezM&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' type='application/x-shockwave-flash' allowfullscreen='true' width='425' height='350' wmode='transparent'></embed></object></span></p>
<p><span style='text-align:center; display: block;'><object width='425' height='350'><param name='movie' value='http://www.youtube.com/v/NmrJyL1nQU8&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' /><param name='allowfullscreen' value='true' /><param name='wmode' value='transparent' /><embed src='http://www.youtube.com/v/NmrJyL1nQU8&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' type='application/x-shockwave-flash' allowfullscreen='true' width='425' height='350' wmode='transparent'></embed></object></span></p>
<p><span style="text-decoration:underline;"><strong>David Calnitsky</strong></span> is a graduate student at the University of Iowa. He is one of the people behind the fantastic website &#8220;<a href="http://sites.google.com/site/radicalperspectivesonthecrisis/">Radical Perspectives on the Crisis</a>&#8221; which I highly recommend. Calnitsky&#8217;s paper was a critique of the &#8220;<a href="http://www.monthlyreview.org/">Monthly Review</a> school&#8221; and their theory of crisis. This is a theoretical tradition associated with Paul Baran and Paul Sweezy and their notion that in the 20th century capitalism entered a monopoly stage which differed in key ways from the competitive capitalism of Marx&#8217;s time. Monopoly prices meant that the law of value did not hold in the same way and that capitalism&#8217;s crisis came, rather than from a falling rate of profit, long stagnation caused by underconsumption. Calnitsky&#8217;s paper deals less on a critique of underconsumption and more on a critique of the notion of monopoly used by the Monthly Review school.</p>
<p><span style='text-align:center; display: block;'><object width='425' height='350'><param name='movie' value='http://www.youtube.com/v/mTkR9UBz7us&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' /><param name='allowfullscreen' value='true' /><param name='wmode' value='transparent' /><embed src='http://www.youtube.com/v/mTkR9UBz7us&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' type='application/x-shockwave-flash' allowfullscreen='true' width='425' height='350' wmode='transparent'></embed></object></span></p>
<p><span style='text-align:center; display: block;'><object width='425' height='350'><param name='movie' value='http://www.youtube.com/v/emPKk_oakJU&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' /><param name='allowfullscreen' value='true' /><param name='wmode' value='transparent' /><embed src='http://www.youtube.com/v/emPKk_oakJU&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' type='application/x-shockwave-flash' allowfullscreen='true' width='425' height='350' wmode='transparent'></embed></object></span></p>
<p><span style="text-decoration:underline;"><strong>Brendan Cooney</strong></span> is the handsome author of this blog. The text of my paper is <a href="http://kapitalism101.wordpress.com/wp-admin/post.php?action=edit&#38;post=415&#38;message=6">here.</a></p>
<p><span style='text-align:center; display: block;'><object width='425' height='350'><param name='movie' value='http://www.youtube.com/v/d5ofhYZVCnY&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' /><param name='allowfullscreen' value='true' /><param name='wmode' value='transparent' /><embed src='http://www.youtube.com/v/d5ofhYZVCnY&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' type='application/x-shockwave-flash' allowfullscreen='true' width='425' height='350' wmode='transparent'></embed></object></span></p>
<p><span style='text-align:center; display: block;'><object width='425' height='350'><param name='movie' value='http://www.youtube.com/v/A-cyKF21Foc&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' /><param name='allowfullscreen' value='true' /><param name='wmode' value='transparent' /><embed src='http://www.youtube.com/v/A-cyKF21Foc&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' type='application/x-shockwave-flash' allowfullscreen='true' width='425' height='350' wmode='transparent'></embed></object></span></p>
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<title><![CDATA[Value, Crisis and Marx's Order of Operations- finale draft]]></title>
<link>http://kapitalism101.wordpress.com/2009/11/17/value-crisis-and-marxs-order-of-operations-finale-draft/</link>
<pubDate>Tue, 17 Nov 2009 04:51:17 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>kapitalism101</dc:creator>
<guid>http://kapitalism101.wordpress.com/2009/11/17/value-crisis-and-marxs-order-of-operations-finale-draft/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[I significantly rushed through portions of this paper and omitted sections in my talk at the Rethink]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>I significantly rushed through portions of this paper and omitted sections in my talk at the<a href="http://kapitalism101.wordpress.com/2009/11/17/rethinking-marxism-temporal-value-theory-in-a-moment-of-crisis-roundtable-on-the-economic-crisis/"> Rethinking Marxism</a> conference. I have also added more material since posting the draft of the paper the week before the conference. So if you find my talk of interest you might want to read this later version.</p>
<p>Crisis, Value and Marx&#8217;s &#8220;Order of Operations&#8221;</p>
<p>Brendan Cooney<br />
kapitalism101.wordpress.com</p>
<p>Abstract:<br />
An economic crisis manifests itself in many different forms simultaneously: stock market crashes, housing market crashes, over capacity, unemployment, etc. For every aspect of the crisis there is some theorist who mistakes this surface appearance for the inner mechanism of crisis. But a proper analysis of crisis needs to have some reason for selecting some phenomena as causes and others as effects. There must be a proper ordering of the relations between different economic factors in order for our analysis to avoid being arbitrary and piecemeal. Marx gives us a very clear, though complex, ordering of these relations. This paper will attempt to critique credit-centered and underconsumptionist theories of crisis from the perspective of Marx&#8217;s &#8220;order of operations&#8221;. It will close with some brief remarks about the Falling Rate of Profit.</p>
<p><strong>The Prophet Elijah</strong></p>
<p><a href="http://kapitalism101.wordpress.com/files/2009/11/elijah.jpg"><img class="alignleft size-medium wp-image-398" title="Elijah" src="http://kapitalism101.wordpress.com/files/2009/11/elijah.jpg?w=247" alt="" width="247" height="300" /></a></p>
<p>Marx was not averse to using all sorts of biblical analogies to illustrate his points and so neither should we be averse to appropriating from &#8220;the good book&#8221; when it suits our purposes.</p>
<p>The prophet Elijah is having a bad day because everybody wants to kill him. He goes into the desert looking for Yahweh, walks for 40 days and 40 nights, crawls into a cave and waits there for Yahweh to appear to him. The Bible says, &#8220;A mighty hurricane shattered the mountain and split the rocks before Yahweh. But Yahweh was not in the hurricane. And after the hurricane, an earthquake. But Yahweh was not in the earthquake. And after the earthquake, a fire. But Yahweh, was not in the fire.&#8221; Finally Elijah hears a light murmuring sound, goes out of the cave and encounters Yahweh himself who reveals a prophecy to him. (1)</p>
<p>And why do I bring up this old-testament acid-trip? Because it is a great distillation of early human ontology. We know from the old-testament that &#8220;God created all heaven and earth,&#8221; that he &#8220;Laveth the thirsty land&#8230;&#8221; that biblical man interpreted the phenomenological world around him as having a common, divine creator. Yet here, in the book of Kings, we get this crucial ontological distinction: God may create hurricanes, earthquakes and fires but God is not in the hurricane, earthquake and fire. To mistake one of these forms of appearance for God himself would be the most gauche of religious fetishism.</p>
<p>Now, perhaps, you see where I am going with my analogy. Here in 2009, peering out from our caves at a world of destruction and crisis raging all around us we too must remember this same lesson. &#8220;There was a great crisis in the housing market. But the fundamental social antagonism of capital was not in the housing market. After the housing bubble there was a collapse of the financial system, but the fundamental social antagonism of capital was not in the financial system. After the collapse of the financial system overcapacity, overproduction and underconsumption were revealed, but the fundamental social antagonism of capital was not in overcapacity, overproduction or underconsumption.&#8221;</p>
<p>The prophet Elijah had a luxury that we do not have. After the forms of appearance pass by, the creator himself appears before Elijah. (The old testament could even be read as a history of humans trying to see God in this pure form through trances, drugs, divination, etc. and learning to live with this lack of direct revelation.) But Marx&#8217;s fundamental starting point is the idea that in a capitalist society we don&#8217;t see these antagonisms in some pure form. They can only be expressed through various forms of appearance: through money, commodities and capital. A crisis is the closest we come to seeing these social antagonisms laid bare, yet here in this current crisis its obvious how easy it still is to mistake credit bubbles and the like for root causes. For our present purposes there are two lessons to learn from Marx&#8217;s fetishism argument. 1. We cannot expect to witness the social antagonisms in their pure form. Thus we must avoid mistaking a form of appearance for the thing in itself. (2)  2. We mustn&#8217;t err too far in the opposite direction. We cannot dismiss this world of appearance as a completely uninteresting world of illusion. The manner in which these social antagonisms are expressed are crucial to our understanding of them. I think that in some of the erroneous theories of crisis I talk about here there is still a kernel of truth. Here I want to extract what is important about the phenomenal forms of the expression of crisis as well as to critique those theories which dwell too long on the phenomenal form without identifying the root causes of crisis.</p>
<p><strong>order of operations</strong></p>
<p><a href="http://kapitalism101.wordpress.com/files/2009/09/486px-das_kapital.jpg"><img class="alignleft size-medium wp-image-329" title="486px-Das_Kapital" src="http://kapitalism101.wordpress.com/files/2009/09/486px-das_kapital.jpg?w=243" alt="" width="243" height="300" /></a></p>
<p>Peering out of our caves in 2009 we are confronted with a variety of phenomenon, all which express the social antagonisms of capital: housing bubble, predatory banks, decline of the dollar, competition, competitive devaluation, excess capacity, stagnant wages, etc. How do we discover what is fundamental about these? What is the relation of all of these different phenomenon to each other? Marx gives us a logical structure with which to understand the inter-relations of these phenomenon. It is not like a mess of billiard balls all colliding with one another with equal force and mass. It is not like that obnoxious string-of-causes so popular in postmodern theory, &#8220;race, class, gender, sexual-orientation, ethnicity, religion&#8230;&#8221;, where all things are given equal weight and no attempt is made to actually understand the relations between different elements. There is a priority of relations in Marx. The question is always, &#8220;What proceeds what logically?&#8221; (3) So, for instance, we can&#8217;t understand the relations between capitalists until we first understand what it means to be a capitalist in the first place. Thus the labor-capital relation logically proceeds the relations between capitalists. This is why Marx said that one of the two most important discoveries of Capital was his treatment of surplus value independent of its division between different factions of the capitalist class.(4) The other important point involves the relation of the labor-capital relation to the value relation. The labor-capital relation presupposes commodity production, the sale of the products of labor in the marketplace which forms the law of value. Since all of the interactions between actors in a capitalist society take the form of commodity exchange, the law of value is the fundamental relation.</p>
<p>Errors can be made here. This &#8220;order of operations&#8221; is not an historical ordering. For instance, we know that money existed before capital. Yet with the historical appearance of capital money becomes subservient to capital. Usury becomes transformed into a credit system which serves capital&#8217;s needs. Fred Moseley might be reproached here for claiming that &#8220;this is not a Marx crisis but a Minsky crisis&#8221;, as if the various historical phenomenal forms of crisis somehow erased this subservience of money to capital. (5)</p>
<p>We could mention other instances of confusion of historical with logical ordering. Engels himself (as well as other great Marxists like Hilferding and Mandel) insisted that the law of value existed historically in the form of simple commodity production prior to capitalist production. I sympathize with Rubin&#8217;s critique of this notion. (6) The primacy of the law of value can be understood purely as a logical primacy, not an historical precedent. Clearly we need to understand the history of trade in an analysis of the evolution of capital. But this doesn&#8217;t mean that the law of value functioned in some pure form, that commodities traded at their socially necessary labor time, prior to capitalist social relations.</p>
<p>In the same way that this order of operations is not historical, it also isn&#8217;t a simple logic of cause-and-effect. It&#8217;s not that value causes capitalism and capitalism causes relations between capitalists. The operation of the law of value can only take hold once capital has cleared away barriers to free exchange. The law of value is dialectically wedded to the laws of capital. We cannot have C-M-C without M-C-M. These two things, the value relation and the labor-capital relation, both merely inversions of one another, subjugate all other forces to their power. As much as we may make powerful insights into the ruthless antagonisms expressed in various parts of the economy they can only be forms of appearance of the basic antagonisms of capital.</p>
<p><strong>Credit theories</strong></p>
<p><a href="http://kapitalism101.wordpress.com/files/2009/11/0569964800.gif"><img class="alignleft size-medium wp-image-399" title="0,,5699648,00" src="http://kapitalism101.wordpress.com/files/2009/11/0569964800.gif?w=300" alt="" width="300" height="205" /></a></p>
<p>With this being said we are already half-way done critiquing the credit-centered theories of crisis of Duncan Foley, Fred Moseley and the host of bourgeois pundits who also take this route. (7) (At the Rethinking Marxism conference I jokingly called these &#8220;stock-jock theories&#8221; of crisis: that stock jocks flapping their wings on Wall Street cause factories to close in Shanghai.) What does it mean to say there is a credit bubble? It means that the size of the paper-symbols of value that are floating around on Wall Street have grown larger than the actual amount of real value produced in the economy. But why did so much investment flow into speculative investments instead of flowing into the production of real profits in the &#8220;real economy&#8221;? And why couldn&#8217;t enough value be created to realize the value of this bubble? Why must assets be written down? Obviously theories of finance always beg other questions about the production of real value. Thus we can&#8217;t understand investments and bubbles in the financial world without a theory of capital accumulation.</p>
<p>This is why credit/finance/financial theories of crisis rely on theoretical attempts to uncouple the financial system from capital. It is argued that developments in the world of finance have created an independent internal logic which can create a crisis independent of the logic of capital. Some credit-crisis theorists, in an effort to clearly separate theories of capital from theoreis of credit, even argue that capital is not in a crisis. This is Moseley&#8217;s approach. It is beyond the scope of this paper to critique these theories of &#8220;uncoupling&#8221;. Rather I want to make it clear how they relate to the structure of Marx&#8217;s argument.</p>
<p><a href="http://kapitalism101.wordpress.com/files/2009/11/nixon.jpeg"><img class="alignleft size-medium wp-image-400" title="nixon" src="http://kapitalism101.wordpress.com/files/2009/11/nixon.jpeg?w=300" alt="" width="300" height="291" /></a></p>
<p>Yet the financial world is not entirely a realm of illusion. Real changes have taken place in the form of world money and these are important for Marxists to include in their analysis. In the 1970&#8217;s when Nixon took the dollar off the gold standard he severed the link between world money and its basis in real value. (There is actually a lot of debate about whether or not the US dollar has a de facto commodity basis. Is the dollar based on the value of oil? of the mass of commodities?) This liberated world money allowing it to become incredibly good at being a medium of circulation, of lubricating exchange. Problems in production and demand could all be easily papered over with a rapidly expanding flow of credit. Fortunes could be made just through the manipulation of currency exchange rates, bypassing the world of production altogether. Yet as world money became better and better at lubricating exchange it became worse and worse at measuring value. It has become increasingly unclear what the real value of a mortgage-backed security, a pension, or even a dollar is. (8)</p>
<p>This phenomenon is exactly what Marx was talking about in those difficult, highly abstract opening chapters to Kapital. When Marx says that the contradiction between a commodity&#8217;s use-value and value is resolved in the money form only for money to internalize this contradiction as a contradiction between the measure of value and the medium of exchange&#8230;. Marx is giving us the theoretical framework to understand real phenomenon like the current contradictory nature of world money. Yet these opening chapters on money are directly followed by the chapters on capital. This is because capital effectively resolves the problems of money. It constantly throws more and more value into the economy, subordinating all production and exchange to its rhythms. When credit is advanced, capital creates the value to pay back this loan.</p>
<p>In this sense leftist credit-based theories of the crisis make the same mistake that Austrian conspiracy crisis-theories do with their obsessive paranoia about central banking. They neglect to mention that the amazing powers of world money to lubricate exchange only come into conflict with money as a measure of value when capital is not able to generate enough value to pay back those loans. This is because money is absorbed into the circuit of capital and subordinated to the rhythm of capital. Financial bubbles do not arise because of some fluke in state regulation. They arise as an attempt to compensate for the contradictions of capital.</p>
<p><strong>Underconsumption</strong></p>
<p>Underconsumption theories have become very popular now-a-days amongst Marxists and non-Marxists. For those unfamiliar with the argument or with the term &#8220;underconsumptionist&#8221;, the idea is that the drive by capitalists to suppress wages ends up coming back to kick them in the butt because low-wages means there isn&#8217;t enough demand in the economy to buy back all the commodities workers are producing.</p>
<p>Underconsumption does appear to veer closer to Marx&#8217;s logic in that it stresses the antagonism between labor and capital. It also considers the process of reproduction as a whole. It acknowledges that crisis is not a question of just the financial sector but of the ability of the antagonistic social relations of capitalism to reproduce themselves through this same antagonistic logic. Yet for a lot of Marxists the term &#8220;underconsumptionist&#8221; has always been an insult directed at theories that claim capitalism can avoid crisis by raising wages a little bit. The critics claim that underconsumptionists unjustly privilege problems of exchange instead of looking to production for the true source of the social antagonisms of capital. In the debates between the underconsumptionists and the falling rate of profit theorists one can sometimes feel caught in a dialectical chicken and egg argument: which has primacy production or exchange?</p>
<p>Rather than providing a full-scale critique of the underconsumptionist position, I want to offer two points which I think help to situation problems of consumption/demand/realization within the logical structure of Marx&#8217;s argument.</p>
<p>Point 1: The difference between the potential for crisis and the &#8220;cause&#8221; of crisis.</p>
<p>I will use a slightly awkward and simplistic analogy to illustrate my point.</p>
<p><a href="http://kapitalism101.wordpress.com/files/2009/11/bike.jpeg"><img class="alignleft size-medium wp-image-401" title="bike" src="http://kapitalism101.wordpress.com/files/2009/11/bike.jpeg?w=300" alt="" width="300" height="272" /></a><br />
A bicycle has the potential to crash. It is narrow, hard to balance and is beset on all sides by the forces of gravity. Yet a bicycle has a means of overcoming this potential: a rider who propels the bike forward. This forward momentum overcomes the forces of gravity, actually using gravity to its own purpose in moving the bike forward. If the bike crashes we will see the forces of gravity kicking in, pulling it to the ground. Yet if it crashes we don&#8217;t say that the bike crashed because of gravity. We instead try to explain why the forward momentum of the rider failed to overcome gravity: ie. it was hit by a car, or hit a pothole, etc.</p>
<p>In Marx&#8217;s  understanding of the circulation of capital there is also a similar logical distinction between the possibility for a crisis and those forces that actually move capitalism into a crisis. The fact that production only becomes social in exchange, the fact that money must serve as a mediating link in the organization of the labor process means that the potential for crisis exists. Money separates production and exchange. It separates a purchase and a sale. It makes it theoretically possible that the social product might not be bought or that demand might not be met. Even with the evolution of money into credit, money can&#8217;t necessarily resolve all of the difficulties of exchange which require money to be thrown into and withdrawn from circulation to adjust to changing masses of commodities entering and exiting the market.</p>
<p>But as we have already seen, capital provides a forward momentum that overcomes these problems. Capital takes the potential instability of C-M-C and inverts it into M-C-M. If a crisis erupts it is because something has gone wrong with the capital&#8217;s ability to provide this forward motion. Yet, this crisis will appear as the separation of a purchase and sale. The circuit of capital will freeze in all of its stages and we will see unsold products, unused capital and unemployed workers. It will look like the problem is in the exchange of these things in the market. But just like we don&#8217;t say gravity is the cause of bike accidents, we also don&#8217;t say a separation of purchase and sale is the cause of crisis. The underconsumptionist gaze is too fixated on the market when the real determination of market phenomenon comes from production. (9)</p>
<p>Sometimes it is argued that that this idea of a &#8220;forward momentum&#8221; provided by capital which overcomes the potential for purchase and sale to create a crisis is a version of Say&#8217;s Law. (For a Marxist &#8220;them&#8217;s fightin&#8217; words.&#8221; J.B Say had argued that sellers bring their own buyers to the market, that supplies are always sold, that the possibility of a general glut of commodities didn&#8217;t exist. Marx hated Say. Marx really hated Say. Marx really really hated Say. Really.) I think it is unfair to characterize my above argument as a version of Say&#8217;s Law. In fact the distinction is a really crucial one which gets to the heart of the underconsumptionist debate.</p>
<p>Products go unsold all the time in a capitalist society. This is the way supply and demand works. If there is a shortage of goods prices and profits rise and capital rushes in. If there is a glut of commodities in a sector prices and profits fall and capital rushes out. This is the mechanism whereby labor is reapportioned. This is the mechanism by which prices coordinate the division of labor. The labor theory of value requires that there be constant disproportions, unsold commodities, reallocation of labor between sectors, etc. if price is to serve its role of reallocating labor. As productivity changes, as demand changes, the disproportions of the market constantly fluctuate to reapportion labor. But labor is reapportioned. It continues to move in and out of sectors in search of the highest profit for capital. This is part of the &#8220;forward motion&#8221; of capital which overcomes the possibility that the separation of purchase and sale can create a crisis.</p>
<p>The underconsumptionst must therefore always argue that there is an absolute limit to how much capital can flow out of the consumer goods sector. If wages are falling and there is therefore less and less demand for consumer goods, then capital will constantly flow into the producer goods sector- the sector which produces machines and other inputs for other capitalists. Critics of underconsumption argue that producer goods sector can continue to grow and grow, furnishing all of the demand needed for accumulation to move forward. Capitalists can sell to each other as the consumer goods sector shrinks.</p>
<p>Underconsumptionists respond by arguing that there is some absolute limit to how much the consumer goods sector can shrink. Sometimes it is even argued that all production is ultimately production for consumer goods. This usually gets underconsumptionists in trouble for falling for the bourgeois idea that demand, not capital accumulation, drives the economy. But isn&#8217;t there a limit to how small the consumer goods sector can shrink? I actually think there is, but that the limit is not set by problems of demand. Imagine an economy in which there were no consumer goods and therefore no workers. Production is totally automated. requiring no workers, and capitalists produce for each other. In such a hypothetical world there would be no law of value and exchange would breakdown. But the lack of consumer demand would not be the problem. It would be the lack of labor which forms the basis of value. This leads naturally to my second theoretical point&#8230;</p>
<p>Point 2: The difference between the total value and the distribution of value in the determination of prices and profit.</p>
<p>When productivity rises why do the prices of individual commodities fall? Because less labor is contained in them. But what is the mechanism which actually forces these prices to fall? There is only so much value in the economy at a given time with which to purchase the mass of use-values created. Capitalists are not free to set any price they like. They are constrained by the amount of value in the form of purchasing power which they confront in the market. (10) When the products of labor meet in the market, when the commodities that make up the entire social product are exchanged with each other, the social relations between producers take on the form of relative prices between their products. In this way the total amount of value constrains the total price. The process of exchange, of realization, is essential to establishing prices and profits. That&#8217;s why as productivity increases prices must fall. When these falling prices correspond to a rising cost of production then we get a falling rate of profit.</p>
<p>But underconsumption theory does not focus on the total value, or the cost of producing this value. Instead it focuses on the distribution of value between workers and capitalists. The distribution of value between wages and profits does effect the profit rate in the sense that less wages mean higher profits. But the distribution of purchasing power between wages and profits does nothing to alter the total amount of value that acts as a constraint on prices and profits. This distribution of consumptive power could effect the prices of commodities in the consumer goods sector, but not the profit rate. If wages fall then there is less value in the economy with which to buy back consumer goods (that is, if the capitalist cannot absorb these goods.) This could cause consumer goods to go unsold or for prices to fall below their value as capitalists compete to sell off this excess of commodities. But this can&#8217;t actually cause the profit rate to fall. This is because the unpaid labor of the worker costs the capitalist nothing. If $100 in lower wages means that $100 of toothbrushes aren&#8217;t sold to workers then the profit rate is exactly where it was before the wage cuts. (11) Furthermore, as pointed out above, a glut of toothbrushes would signal capital to leave this sector and move to another sector where potential profits are higher.</p>
<p>It is not the distribution of purchasing power between labor and capital which is crucial for crisis theory. It is the total mass of value, the total mass of surplus value and the cost of producing this surplus value. This, of course, is the theory of the falling rate of profit.</p>
<p><strong>Falling Rate of Profit</strong></p>
<p>The theory of the tendency of the falling rate of profit succeeds where these other theories fail. It correctly identifies the central dynamics of a capitalist society in the dialectical interrelation between value and capital, the mutual interdependence of C-M-C and M-C-M. Capital contains a contradiction: it incorporates the the body of the worker into its cold, machine-like logic. The worker becomes a commodity, embodying the contradiction of all commodities: that commodities are both use-values and exchange values. The contradiction of the commodity form becomes the contradiction of capital.</p>
<p>Capital plays out this contradiction through the commodity form. It raises the social productivity of labor, thus increasing the mass of use-values produced and increasing the mass of use-values that the worker confronts on the shopfloor. But as it develops the social productivity of labor, the efficiency with which use-values are produced, it undermines its ability to produce surplus value- its own social basis. The production of use-value and exchange value come into conflict.</p>
<p>Thus the theory of the falling rate of profit properly situates Marx&#8217;s crisis theory within Marx&#8217;s larger historical analysis of the evolution of the forces and relations of production. Capital develops the forces of production beyond the point at which they can continue to support the relations of production. This is why Marx says that the FRP exposes the historical limit to capitalist social relations. (12) Of course capitalist crisis is cyclical. The falling rate of profit is not a theory of some terminal stage of crisis. But it does relate the theory of crisis to Marx&#8217;s larger project of identifying the historical nature of capitalism. Other crisis theories do not do this. (13) We will not see the emergence of some new historical form of derivatives that harkens the coming revolution. We will not see some new development of wages that paves the road for socialism. But in the evolution of the forces of production we can see the historical limits to capital. I think that these historical limits are worth thinking about when we analyze the evolution of value, especially now-a-days in the realm of information production. (14)</p>
<p>Footnotes:</p>
<p>(1) Bible. 1 Kings 19:11</p>
<p>(2) I haven&#8217;t read enough Autonomist Marxist literature to put forth a criticism of their ideas on crisis here. When surveying the autonomist literature I would keep this aspect of fetishism in mind. To what extent does the focus on the autonomy of the worker in autonomist thinking represent a desire to see the social antagonism of capital in some pure form, free from forms of appearance?</p>
<p>(3) This notion of logical priority is articulated well in I.I. Rubin&#8217;s &#8220;Essays on Marx&#8217;s Theory of Value&#8221;. This is a great book, with an extremely careful and detailed analysis of the logical structure of Marx&#8217;s argument.</p>
<p>(4) Marx and Engels, &#8220;Selected Correspondence&#8221;, from a letter from Marx to Engels, August 24th 1867. Marx writes, &#8220;The best points in my book are: 1) the two-fold character of labor, according to whether it is expressed in use-value or exchange value. (All understanding of the facts depend upon this.) It is emphasized immediately in the first chapter; 2) the treatment of surplus value independently of its particular forms as profit, interest, ground rent, etc.&#8221;</p>
<p>(5) See Fred Moseley&#8217;s piece June 08 in the journal International Socialism. http://www.isj.org.uk/?id=463; For a more detailed piece by Moseley see http://www.isreview.org/issues/64/feat-moseley.shtml<br />
For more criticism of Moseley see Andrew Kliman&#8217;s &#8220;On the Roots of the Financial Crisis and some Proposed Solutions&#8221;<br />
http://marxisthumanistinitiative.org/2009/04/17/on-the-roots-of-the-current-economic-crisis-and-some-proposed-solutions/</p>
<p>(6) See Hilferding&#8217;s &#8220;Response to Bohm-Bawerk&#8221; for the classic defense of this theory of the historical precedence of simple commodity production. Also see Ernest Mandel&#8217;s introduction to Vo. 1 of Capital. I am convinced by Rubin&#8217; s criticism of this theory in &#8220;Essays on Marx&#8217;s Theory of Value.&#8221; Also see the brief criticism in David Harvey&#8217;s &#8220;Limits to Capital.&#8221;</p>
<p>(7) See Duncan Foley&#8217;s trippy graphs in his paper &#8220;The Anatomy of Financial and Economic Crisis&#8221;: http://sites.google.com/site/radicalperspectivesonthecrisis/finance-crisis/on-the-origins-of-the-crisis-beyond-finance/foleytheanatomyoffinancialandeconomiccrisis<br />
While I have a deal of respect for a lot of the other theorists I critique in this paper, Foley&#8217;s paper does not garnish one iota of respect outside of the trippy graphs.</p>
<p>(8) See David McNally&#8217;s great 2008 paper on this subject: &#8220;From Financial Crisis to World Slump&#8221;<br />
http://marxandthefinancialcrisisof2008.blogspot.com/2008/12/david-mcnally-from-financial-crisis-to.html</p>
<p>(9) Anwar Shaikh&#8217;s criticism of underconsumption as lacking a theory of the rate of accumulation is what I had in mind when constructing this argument. See his &#8220;And Introduction to the History of Crisis Theories&#8221; on his homepage: http://homepage.newschool.edu/~AShaikh/</p>
<p>Also useful is Harvey&#8217;s discussion of the way capital solves the effective demand problem at the end of chapter 3 of his &#8220;Limits to Capital.</p>
<p>(10) Here, actually, I feel ambivalent. Is it the total value or the total value in the form of purchasing power that sets the limit on prices? Is there a difference?</p>
<p>(11) see G. Carchedi &#8220;Return from the Grave&#8221;  http://sites.google.com/site/radicalperspectivesonthecrisis/finance-crisis/on-the-origins-of-the-crisis-beyond-finance/carchedireturnfromthegrave</p>
<p>(12) Das Kapital, Vol. 3. Chapter 15</p>
<p>(13) Much has already been written by falling rate of profit theorists about the problematic &#8220;solutions&#8221; recommended by proponents of erroneous crisis theories. The financial-centered theorists call for nationalization of finance or closer regulation. This makes sense because they see the problem emanating from a faction of the capitalist class, or from the money form, but not from capital and the value form. It thus seems logical from their perspective for the capitalist state to solve the problem. Rick Wolf, representing the underconsumption school, advocates a worker-owned factory, market-socialism type of society to replace capitalism. This makes sense coming from the perspective that the chief antagonism is in the distribution of wages and profits. Because the dialectical relation between C-M-C and M-C-M is not present in Wolfe&#8217;s theory there would be no reason for him to question commodity production0 to ask to what extent commodity production eventually reproduces the capital relation.</p>
<p>(14) Here is theoretical terrain that is in desperate need of more theorizing. Marx&#8217;s optimism for a post-capitalist future came from his analysis of the development of the forces of production under capitalism. He writes about the way in which the centralization of means of production leads to a truly social labor process, and how abstract labor creates a truly universal class. In our lifetime we have seen the stagnation and death of many industries whose ownership of the means of production have been eroded by the evolution of digital information technologies- technologies which have eliminated productive labor from the task of duplicating and distributing information. This has created an under-theorized collective commons of information creation that has struggled to find a stable commodity basis. The open-source software movement is perhaps the best example of this emerging terrain of conflict. Capital&#8217;s response is increasingly reactionary. Rather than establish a new basis in real value production it relies on narrow legal enclosures, threatening to turn the information age into a new period of primitive accumulation. But can capitalist production be anything but reactionary and parasitic in the realm of information production? What does this mean for theories of revolution? I don&#8217;t know. I am influenced by Tessa-Morris-Suzuki&#8217;s writing on this topic. See her essays in the book &#8220;Cutting Edge&#8221; edited by Jim Davis.</p>
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<title><![CDATA[Saúde Mental e Psicologia do Trabalho_Parte I]]></title>
<link>http://grupopapeando.wordpress.com/2009/11/16/saude-mental-e-psicologia-do-trabalho_parte-i/</link>
<pubDate>Mon, 16 Nov 2009 21:48:10 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>Grupo Papeando</dc:creator>
<guid>http://grupopapeando.wordpress.com/2009/11/16/saude-mental-e-psicologia-do-trabalho_parte-i/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[&#8220;Linha de Produção&#8221; por Di Cavalcanti (1897-1976) *Por José Roberto Heloani e Cláudio Ga]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p style="text-align:center;"><a href="http://grupopapeando.wordpress.com/files/2009/11/di-cavalcanti_linha_de_producao.jpg"><img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-1421" title="Di cavalcanti_linha_de_producao" src="http://grupopapeando.wordpress.com/files/2009/11/di-cavalcanti_linha_de_producao.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="404" /></a>&#8220;Linha de Produção&#8221; por Di Cavalcanti (1897-1976)</p>
<p style="text-align:right;"><strong>*Por José Roberto Heloani e Cláudio Garcia Capitão</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Um dos objetivos mais recentes da saúde mental não se restringe apenas à cura das doenças ou a sua prevenção, mas envidar esforços para a balhar em excesso e a divertir-se muito pouco; outras, pelo contrário, passam os dias a divertirem-se; outras ainda não conseguem fazer nem uma coisa nem outra. Sabe-se hoje que tanto o trabalho, quanto a diversão em proporções satisfatórias são critérios para avaliar um funcionamento psíquico saudável. Na realidade, ao contrário do que muitos possam supor, a organização do trabalho não cria doenças mentais específicas. Os surtos psicóticos e a formação das neuroses dependem da estrutura da personalidade que a pessoa desenvolve desde o início da sua vida, chegando a certa configuração relativamente estável, após o período de ebulição da adolescência – quando as condições sociais são relativamente favoráveis –, antes mesmo da pessoa entrar no processo produtivo. No entanto, “o defeito crônico de uma vida mental sem saída mantido pela organização do trabalho, tem provavelmente um efeito que favorece as descompensações psiconeuróticas” (Dejours, 1992:122).</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Atualmente, observa-se uma pressão constante contra a grande massa de trabalhadores existente em quase todo o mundo. Uma ameaça com objetivo certeiro faz com que milhares de pessoas sintam-se sobressaltadas, pois a úniimplementação de recursos que tenham como resultado melhores condições de saúde para a população. Na visão de Bleger (1984), não interessa apenas a ausência de doenças, mas o desenvolvimento integral das pessoas e da comunidade. A ênfase, então, na saúde mental, desloca-se da doença à saúde e à observação de como os seres humanos vivem em seu cotidiano. Para Dejours (1994), a psicopatologia tradicional está alicerçada no modelo clássico da fisiopatologia das doenças que afetam o corpo. Dedica-se, exclusivamente, ao diagnóstico das doenças mentais, dos transtornos mentais orgânicos, da esquizofrenia, dos transtornos do humor e dos inúmeros transtornos de personalidade. O debate, porém, que este artigo pretende explorar abrange as condições de milhares de pessoas sem imunidade que, embora suportem as pressões, conseguem, de alguma forma, escapar de um transtorno psicótico severo, mas que se mantêm, por assim dizer, no campo da normalidade. Não é raro encontrar pessoas que, por uma condição de sua psicodinâmica interna, possuem a propensão a tra ca ferramenta de que dispõem, sua força de trabalho, pode ser dispensada a qualquer momento.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">O desprezo assola o universo do trabalho e traz conseqüências drásticas para todos os que têm em seu trabalho sua única forma de sobrevivência. Contudo, a força de trabalho exigida precisa de especial qualificação, mesmo que seja, como antigamente, para apertar um simples botão. Assim, para a maior parte das atividades, exige-se um trabalhador complexo, que saiba muito mais além do que seria preciso para a execução de determinada tarefa. Acompanhando a tecnicidade do mundo, vai-se,  paulatinamente, necessitando de um trabalhador com maiores habilidades, ágil, que saiba lidar com uma nova representação de mundo, mesmo que seja para ocupar um cargo simples como o de telefonista. Essa pessoa tem de dominar sua língua, em alguns casos outro idioma, tem de ter rapidez tanto manual, como na voz e na mente, além de uma bagagem de informação disponível enquanto recurso pessoal para, ante qualquer dificuldade, utilizá-la.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Assim, o mundo do trabalho torna-se, de forma rápida e surpreendente, um complexo monstruoso, que se por um lado poderia ajudar, auxiliar o homem em sua qualidade de vida, por outro lado – patrocinado pelos que mantêm o controle do capital, da ferramenta diária que movimenta a escolha de prioridades –, avassala o homem em todos os seus aspectos.  Alguns são absorvidos, exigidos, sugados. Outros alçados a postos de poder e de liderança que reproduzem o capital virtual. Outros, por assim dizer, alguns milhões, são jogados como a escória cuja água benta do emprego, da possibilidade do trabalho, não veio a salvar.  Esse princípio de realidade adentra e fere o psiquismo humano, fazendo com que as pessoas sintam-se exigidas; o sentimento de impotência e de desvalorização, que leva as pessoas pouco resistentes a degenerar-se rapidamente, avilta de si qualquer potencial humano que pudesse se somar às conquistas da civilização.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><strong>Paradoxos do Trabalho</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">A barbárie do capital instaura na contemporaneidade a desumanidade das relações humanas, que se desqualificam quase totalmente, surpreendendo com a forma e a fôrma na qual o homem atual vai colocando-se. O capital, por meio do trabalho, organiza e estrutura o mundo. Só que hoje ele não tem mais nomes, expressa-se por Fundos. As empresas são gerenciadas por executivos, não mais por seus donos. Podem mudar de cidade, de nome, de país, de ramo de atividade, deixando seus trabalhadores em pleno mar de incertezas e retirando-lhes a identificação com sua prática diária e com a empresa para a qual trabalham.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">No pensamento e análise precisos e pontuais de Ianni (2000), é principalmente no neoliberalismo que se dá a dissociação entre o Estado e a sociedade civil, adquirindo o primeiro características de um aparelho administrativo das classes e grupos que detêm o poder, configurando-se como blocos dominantes em escala mundial. O que se observa é um Estado comprometido com a possibilidade de facilitação da produção e dos mercados, tendo em seu bojo a fluidez do capital produtivo e especulativo, da alta tecnologia, da informática, etc. No entanto, sempre em sintonia com as políticas geradas pelo Fundo Monetário Internacional (FMI), Banco Mundial (Bird), Organização Mundial do Comércio (OMC), Grupo dos 7, Organização para a Cooperação e Desenvolvimento Econômico (OCDE) comprometidas em facilitar e incrementar a produção, com praticamente nenhum cuidado em relação aos resultados de suas políticas, sua repercussão social ou conseqüências diretas na vida de milhões de pessoas.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Se o homem passa a maior parte de seu tempo trabalhando, suas relações pessoais fora de casa deveriam ter um valor afetivo de extrema importância. No entanto, as relações de companheirismo e de amizade no trabalho não se concretizam, pois elas são passageiras, imediatas, competitivas e as ligações afetivas, os vínculos não podem estabelecer-se, já que com cada alteração rompem-se os laços, perdem-se as pessoas e daí, além do castigo do desemprego, há a solidão, a perda irreparável. Fala-se em corrosão do caráter porque ninguém, nem os que teriam todas as razões para estarem satisfeitos com o sistema já que representam seu próprio ideal, encara seu emprego num horizonte a longo prazo. O comportamento de curto prazo, como Sennett (1998) observou, distorceu qualquer senso de realidade, confiança e comprometimento mútuo. As empresas descartam seus funcionários e os que podem fazem o mesmo. As pessoas parecem não mais estarem preocupadas com o significado do seu trabalho ou com a oportunidade de vivência e troca coletiva. A preocupação volta-se para a acumulação de um valor de troca, como se todos se convertessem em uma ação de mercado, cujo preço é julgado por outrem. A verdadeira identificação com o trabalho parece viver de um objetivo que não chega a concretizar-se: acumula-se aprendizado, dinheiro, experiência, aumentam-se as páginas do currículo, tudo para o próximo processo seletivo já que o trabalho atual será apenas momentâneo.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">No presente, ao contrário da classe de mineiros descrita em Germinal, por Zola, o que encontra-se são pessoas isoladas, esquizóides, que olham o colega como alguém não confiável, não só pelo fato do que o outro realmente é, mas, muito mais, pelo que representa: sofrimento e dor. No universo pós-moderno “são muitos os que colocam em plano muito secundário, ou simplesmente esquecem, o povo, as classes, os grupos e os movimentos sociais, assim como as correntes de opinião pública e os jogos das forças sociais [...] Em especial, esquecem as formas de organização social e técnica do trabalho, compreendendo as condições sob as quais se desenvolvem e realizam a produção, distribuição, troca e consumo, processos com os quais se funda uma parte fundamental da ‘fábrica’ da sociedade, em escala nacional e mundial” (Ianni, 2000).</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Retrocedendo na História, assim como sugere Marx (1996), mais dependente aparece o indivíduo, e, conseqüentemente também o indivíduo produtor e o conjunto ao qual pertence. De início, esse aparece de um modo ainda bastante natural, no seio da família e da tribo, esta uma família ampliada. Mais tarde, surge nas inúmeras formas de comunidade resultantes do antagonismo e da fusão das tribos. Somente no século XVIII, na “sociedade burguesa”, é que as diversas formas do conjunto social passaram a apresentar-se ao indivíduo como simples meio de realizar seus fins privados, como necessidade exterior. Todavia, a época que produz esse ponto de vista, o do indivíduo isolado, é precisamente aquela na qual as relações sociais (e, desse ponto de vista, gerais) alcançaram o mais alto grau de desenvolvimento.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Não pretende-se nesse breve artigo sobrepor o homem atual àquele encontrado no século XVIII, no que se refere, por exemplo, ao trabalho e à forma como ele se organiza. Mas, ao contrário, esclarecer algumas das determinações históricas que fizeram com que o trabalho fosse e tivesse a forma atual e porque a relação com o trabalho deve ser de sofrimento, de pena a ser cumprida, de trabalho forçado e não algo ego-sintônico, motivado e prazeroso. Seriam apenas as relações de propriedade e de exploração? Ou a própria produção cria aquele que consome, que, por sinal, cria a própria Produção. Para Marx (1996:31), “a produção é também imediatamente consumo. Consumo duplo, subjetivo e objetivo. O indivíduo, que ao produzir desenvolve suas faculdades, também as gasta, as consome, no ato da produção, exatamente como a reprodução natural é um consumo de forças vitais”. Se a produção coincide com o consumo dos meios que obrigatoriamente foram utilizados e gastos para que ela ocorresse, o próprio ato de produção vai ser, como se verá, em todos os seus momentos, também ato de consumo. O resultado, em síntese, é que a produção é consumo, e que, imediatamente, é produção. “Cada qual é imediatamente seu contrário. Mas, ao mesmo tempo, opera-se um movimento mediador entre ambos. A produção é mediadora do consumo, cujos materiais cria e sem os quais não terá objeto. Mas o consumo é também mediador da produção ao criar para os produtos o sujeito, para o qual são os produtos” (Marx, 1996:32).</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Para entender quais as determinações históricas da relação homem x trabalho na modernidade, tem-se de penetrar na “máquina” que tece sua trama nevrálgica, a produção que cria seu produtor e consumidor, com base no momento em que foi gerada. Então, o trabalho configura-se como o representante da força dos impulsos que o homem emprega para executálo, para poder ou não consumir o que foi por ele produzido, abrindo possibilidades de constituição de subjetividades, correspondentes a cada época histórica, que tem, por domínio, uma forma de produção.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Sujeito, trabalho, produto, consumo, lucro. Elementos constitutivos de um intrigante eixo gravitacional, em que consumidor e produto mantêm uma relação eqüidistante. Para Adorno e Horkheimer (apud Rouanet, 1983:147) “a atrofia da imaginação e da espontaneidade do consumidor cultural moderno não precisa ser reconduzida a mecanismos psicológicos. Os produtos mesmos, a partir do mais típico, o filme falado, paralisam aquelas faculdades por sua própria constituição objetiva. São feitos de tal forma que sua compreensão adequada exige rapidez de reflexos, dotes de observação, competência específica, mas também a absoluta suspensão da atividade mental do espectador, se este não quer perder os fatos que se desenrolam diante de seus olhos&#8230; o espectador não deve trabalhar com a própria cabeça; o produto prescreve todas as reações: não por seu contexto objetivo – este se esvai no momento em que é submetido ao pensamento – mas através de sinais. Toda conexão lógica, que exija esforço intelectual, é escrupulosamente evitada”. O produto posiciona o consumidor na mesma situação de uma linha de montagem e não se restringe apenas a filmes, mas a amplo universo de necessidades criadas, consumidas sem qualquer reflexão, como se os efeitos da paralisia mental sofrida na produção fosse transferida em gênero, número e grau, para aquele que o adquire.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">No que se refere à produção, e por que não dizer o mesmo para o consumo, a situação que se encontra na atualidade não surgiu por geração espontânea, mas ocorreram marcos no capitalismo, que, para melhor rendimento e maior produção, desenvolveu métodos, muitos dos quais, aperfeiçoados em diversas versões. Taylor (apud Heloani, 1994) formulou uma forma de organização do trabalho caracterizada pelo amplo funcionamento das tarefas e concomitante o monitoramento dos movimentos dos trabalhadores. Tal forma rígida de controle objetivava a eficiência como meta e princípio. O modelo de Taylor, por seu lado, foi aperfeiçoado por Henry Ford, que desenvolveu a concepção de linha de montagem. O trabalho, então, é dividido de tal forma que o trabalhador possa a ser abastecido de peças e componentes através de esteiras, sem precisar, desse modo, movimentar-se. A administração do tempo passa a se dar de forma coletiva, pela adaptação do conjunto dos trabalhadores ao ritmo imposto pela esteira. O fordismo não se limitará apenas à questão disciplinar no interior da fábrica. Ele incorporará, tal como o taylorismo, um projeto social de “melhoria das condições de vida do trabalhador”. O projeto social fordista revela-se um projeto político que objetivava assimilar o saber e a percepção política do trabalhador para a organização.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Até a crise do paradigma taylorista-fordista de produção, o modelo de Recursos Humanos e a própria concepção de administração estiveram articulados com concepções oriundas da engenharia, especialmente com a de produção, como também, com a lógica militar, expressa tão bem pela utilização de vocábulos pertencentes à caserna, tais como: logística, tática, estratégia, etc. Em conseqüência das transformações sociais e das ocorridas no cerne do capitalismo, a abordagem da engenharia foi perdendo espaço e começou a ser questionada à medida que o modelo fordista de desenvolvimento entra em crise – perde sua eficácia – em fins dos anos 60 e começo dos 70. Tal mudança não foi produto simples e acabado de uma visão mais humanista ou de um longo e bem-cuidado processo de conscientização, mas conseqüência de uma necessidade premente de responder a uma nova estrutura econômica e a um novo modo de regulamentação social; em suma, a uma nova realidade que se apresentava e que exigia respostas rápidas por parte do capital.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><strong>*José Roberto Heloani </strong>é Professor e Pesquisador da Universidade Estadual de Campinas e na FGV-SP(jheloani@fgvsp.br).</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><strong>*Cláudio Garcia Capitão </strong>é Psicólogo Clínico, Professor e Pesquisador em Psicologia na Universidade São Francisco (cgcapitao@uol.com.br).</p>
<p style="text-align:right;"><strong>Fonte: Revista <a href="http://www.seade.gov.br/produtos/spp/" target="_blank">São Paulo em Perspectiva</a> 17(2): 102-108, 2003</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:right;"><strong><span style="color:#888888;">Leia a segunda parte deste artigo</span> <a href="http://grupopapeando.wordpress.com/2009/11/16/saude-mental-e-psicologia-do-trabalho_parte-i/" target="_blank">AQUI</a><br />
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<title><![CDATA[China turns to Adam Smith ]]></title>
<link>http://freemarketmojo.wordpress.com/2009/11/16/china-turns-to-adam-smith/</link>
<pubDate>Mon, 16 Nov 2009 21:42:53 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>Ariel Goldring</dc:creator>
<guid>http://freemarketmojo.wordpress.com/2009/11/16/china-turns-to-adam-smith/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[From the Telegraph: What is more unexpected is that it is China that has an appetite for the father ]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>From the <a href="http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/economics/6584906/China-turns-to-Adam-Smith.html" target="_blank"><em>Telegraph</em></a>:</p>
<blockquote><p>What is more unexpected is that it is China that has an appetite for the    father of modern capitalism, while the West is rediscovering Marx.</p>
<p>Smith’s first masterpiece, the <em>Theory of Moral Sentiments</em>, has    been translated into Chinese for the first time, and Chris Berry, professor    at Glasgow University, where Smith wrote the book, will next week deliver    lectures on it at Fudan University in Shanghai.</p>
<p>China’s Premier, Wen Jiabao, has said he often carries the work – which    preceded his more famous work <em>The Wealth of Nations</em> – in his suitcase    when he goes abroad. Prof Berry said the earlier book emphasised the    importance “not only [of] their material prosperity but also their moral    welfare”.</p></blockquote>
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<title><![CDATA[Zizek! (2005)]]></title>
<link>http://auladefilosofia.net/2009/11/16/zizek-2005/</link>
<pubDate>Mon, 16 Nov 2009 20:15:01 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>Eugenio Sánchez Bravo</dc:creator>
<guid>http://auladefilosofia.net/2009/11/16/zizek-2005/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Ficha técnica Director: Astra Taylor Fecha de estreno: 2005 Duración: 71 minutos Producción: Hidden ]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p style="text-align:center;"><embed src='http://widgets.vodpod.com/w/video_embed/Groupvideo.3928477' type='application/x-shockwave-flash' AllowScriptAccess='always' pluginspage='http://www.macromedia.com/go/getflashplayer' wmode='transparent' flashvars='' /></p>
<h2>Ficha técnica</h2>
<ol>
<li><strong>Director</strong>: Astra Taylor</li>
<li><strong>Fecha de estreno</strong>: 2005</li>
<li><strong>Duración</strong>: 71 minutos</li>
<li><strong>Producción</strong>: Hidden Driver Productions, The Documentary Campaign</li>
<li><strong>Nacionalidad</strong>: EE.UU., Canadá</li>
<li><strong>Rodado en</strong>: Buenos Aires, Ljubljana, New York.</li>
</ol>
<h2>Sinopsis</h2>
<p>Recomendado por Jaume, este es un vídeo subtitulado en español sobre la figura del filósofo esloveno Slavoj Žižek. No es el típico documental relacionado con la filosofía: previsible y aburrido. Son muchas las sorpresas. Por ejemplo el aula abarrotada de Buenos Aires, su curiosa carrera política, la ropa en los armarios de la cocina, su fobia social&#8230; En el discurso de Žižek destacan, por un lado, la voluntad de ser claro, de explicar a Lacan de modo que lo entienda &#8220;hasta tu abuela&#8221; y, por otro, la finura en el análisis de las trampas con que las democracias capitalistas se autolegitiman.</p>
<p>Otra copia del documental en esta excelente <a href="http://doclecticos.blogspot.com/search/label/Zizek.%20Slavoj" target="_blank">Videoteca de humanidades</a></p>
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<title><![CDATA[Cato Institute talks with Jay Richards about Christianity and capitalism]]></title>
<link>http://winteryknight.wordpress.com/2009/11/16/cato-institute-talks-with-jay-richards-about-christianity-and-capitalism/</link>
<pubDate>Mon, 16 Nov 2009 14:00:48 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>Wintery Knight</dc:creator>
<guid>http://winteryknight.wordpress.com/2009/11/16/cato-institute-talks-with-jay-richards-about-christianity-and-capitalism/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Did you know that the libertarian Cato Institute has a podcast? I like listening to it, even though ]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>Did you know that the libertarian Cato Institute has a podcast? I like listening to it, even though I am not a libertarian on many issues. But I like their views on economics, government and liberty. I think that they are right on issues like school choice, consumer-driven health care, and global warming skepticism. In the episode of their podcast below, they interviewed Protestant theologian and philosopher Jay W. Richards on the relationship between Christianity and economics.</p>
<p><a href="http://feeds.cato.org/~r/CatoDailyPodcast/~5/HfAWsQYVmvM/jayprichards_moneygreedandgod_20091113.mp3">The MP3 file is here</a>. (10 minutes)</p>
<p>The guy who does these podcasts is named Caleb Brown. Now, with a name like &#8220;Caleb&#8221;, I always thought that he must be some sort of Christian. Well, it turns out that he is a Quaker. And this is a shock, because Quakers are actually pretty socialistic on economic issues. But it turns out that Caleb is as concerned as I am that Christians are not more inclined towards capitalism. The fit between Christianity and capitalism is much more natural than with secular socialism.</p>
<p><strong>Further study</strong></p>
<p>To learn more about the relationship between Christianity and capitalism, <a href="../2009/06/05/what-is-intelligent-design-what-is-capitalism/" target="_blank">check out this post</a> (the second half is on capitalism).</p>
<p>Excerpt:</p>
<blockquote><p>To understand what capitalism is, you can <a href="http://www.booktv.org/watch.aspx?ProgramId=PC-10489" target="_blank">watch this lecture</a> entitled “<a href="http://www.amazon.com/Money-Greed-God-Capitalism-Solution/dp/0061375616" target="_blank">Money, Greed and God</a>: Why Capitalism is the Solution and Not the Problem” by Jay W. Richards, delivered at the Heritage Foundation think tank, and televised by C-SPAN2.</p>
<p>[...]If you can’t see the Richards video, here is an audio lecture by Jay Richards on the “<a href="http://bonhoeffer.acton.org/acton_media/mp3/2008-06-11_Richards.mp3" target="_blank">Myths Christians Believe about Wealth and Poverty</a>“. Also, why not check out this <a href="http://scottsdalebible.com/tag/factors-within-nations" target="_blank">series of 4 sermons</a> by Wayne Grudem on the relationship between Christianity and economics? (<a href="http://www.christianessentialssbc.com/downloads/50factorsthatcantransformnationsrev12-9-08.pdf" target="_blank">a PDF outline is here</a>)</p></blockquote>
<p>And you can listen to <a href="http://winteryknight.wordpress.com/2009/11/10/what-should-christians-believe-about-economic-policy-and-social-justice/" target="_blank">Ron Nash&#8217;s course on Christianity and economics</a>.</p>
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<title><![CDATA[20 Years Since the Fall of The Berlin Wall- The Case for Socialists in Ashford]]></title>
<link>http://ashfordresistance.wordpress.com/2009/11/16/20-years-since-the-fall-of-the-berlin-wall-the-case-for-socialists-in-ashford/</link>
<pubDate>Mon, 16 Nov 2009 11:44:41 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>ashfordresistance</dc:creator>
<guid>http://ashfordresistance.wordpress.com/2009/11/16/20-years-since-the-fall-of-the-berlin-wall-the-case-for-socialists-in-ashford/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Just a couple of weeks ago, we saw the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin wall. This was par]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>Just a couple of weeks ago, we saw the <a href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/8349742.stm">20th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin wall</a>. This was part of a wave of revolutions across the continent of Europe, with strikes, demonstrations and social movements turning against State Capitalist regimes, and subsequently overthrowing them. This culminated in one of the most critical images of the 20th century, the tearing down of the Berlin Wall.</p>
<p><img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-31" title="Berlin%20Wall%20Freedom" src="http://ashfordresistance.wordpress.com/files/2009/11/berlin20wall20freedom.jpg" alt="Berlin%20Wall%20Freedom" width="576" height="385" /></p>
<p>There are many lessons to be learnt from this event. One of the first has been the decline in all groups on the revolutionary left of politics in England except for the <a href="http://www.swp.org.uk/">Socialist Workers Party</a>.  All other groups stressed, to varying degrees, how damaging the waves of revolutions were for the left, and how they would damage the working class. This was born out of their analysis, largely of the Soviet Union being either a <a href="http://bataillesocialiste.wordpress.com/2009/11/01/workers-state-pull-the-other-one/">Workers State, or a Degenerated Workers state</a>.  In both instances, this mistaken analysis led them to believe that the regimes in the Eastern Bloc were structurally more progressive and advantageous for Workers than the capitalist West. Given this analysis, it makes sense, that they would therefore defend the regimes ahead of the mass of workers who fought to overthrow them.</p>
<p>In the SWP, our analysis of Russia as a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_capitalism">State Capitalist</a> country, extorting a surplus value from the workers in the USSR, allowed us to celebrate the wave of Revolutions based on the understanding of socialism as “The self emancipation of the working class” as Marx defined it&#8230;..</p>
<p>Read the full article by <a href="http://ashfordresistance.wordpress.com/files/2009/11/20-years-since-the-fall-of-the-berlin-wall.pdf">clicking here</a>.</p>
<p>This is the first in a series of longer articles that will be posted to this blog by the resistance.  If you would like to contribute, get in touch!</p>
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<title><![CDATA[conference summary part 2: the internet as playground and factory]]></title>
<link>http://nathanjurgenson.wordpress.com/2009/11/16/conference-summary-part-2-the-internet-as-playground-and-factory/</link>
<pubDate>Mon, 16 Nov 2009 07:48:12 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>nathanjurgenson</dc:creator>
<guid>http://nathanjurgenson.wordpress.com/2009/11/16/conference-summary-part-2-the-internet-as-playground-and-factory/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[by nathan jurgenson Following PJ Rey’s excellent summary of the Internet as Playground and Factory y]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>by <a href="http://www.nathanjurgenson.com" target="_blank">nathan jurgenson</a></p>
<p><img class="alignleft size-thumbnail wp-image-220" title="500px-Google_wordmark.svg" src="http://nathanjurgenson.wordpress.com/files/2009/11/500px-google_wordmark-svg.png?w=150" alt="500px-Google_wordmark.svg" width="191" height="67" />Following PJ Rey’s <a href="http://sociologycompass.wordpress.com/2009/11/15/conference-summary-part-i-the-internet-as-playground-and-factory/" target="_blank">excellent summary of the Internet as Playground and Factory</a> yesterday, I offer a few additional observations from the conference this past weekend, focusing on Web 2.0 capitalism, and Google as the primary target. The roughly 100 presenters were not joined by Google, as the company said that the conference content seemed “slightly anti-capitalist.” Much of the content, indeed, took the corporate ownership of our productive labor online to task.</p>
<p>A common theme was how to discuss Marx’s <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labor_theory_of_value#Marx.27s_contribution" target="_blank">Labor Theory of Value</a> with respect to <a href="http://oreilly.com/web2/archive/what-is-web-20.html" target="_blank">Web 2.0</a>. Clearly, companies are exploiting our free labor, but they do not have to coerce us. <a href="http://digitallabor.org/speakers1/julian_k_cklich" target="_blank">Julian Kucklich</a> argued that we now have exploitation without alienation. That is, our unpaid labor is used for corporate surveillance and profit, even if the labor is not alienating or “foreign to ourselves.” Simply, we like using Facebook, Twitter and so on. However, Kucklich further argues that we are taught to think Facebook is fun, that companies use the “ideology of play” to seduce us into producing (or better, prosuming). <a href="http://digitallabor.org/speakers1/martin_roberts" target="_blank">Martin Roberts</a>, in, ironically, perhaps the conference&#8217;s most entertaining presentation, also took to task the culture of “fun”, arguing that we have been trained to see our work as “fun”, making us more productive for the capitalist system. <a href="http://digitallabor.org/speakers1/christian_fuchs" target="_blank">Christian Fuchs</a> most forcefully argued for a communist Internet, stating that exploitation on Web 2.0 is infinite because users are not being paid material wages. A good Marxian, he downplayed the importance of immaterial value gained through sites like Facebook because we live in a capitalism system based on the material. And <a href="http://digitallabor.org/speakers1/ulises_mejias" target="_blank">Ulises Mejias</a> takes Web 2.0 to task for the creation of corporate <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monopsony" target="_blank">Monopsonies</a>, where we have seen Facebook, Amazon, eBay, YouTube, Google and so on become corporate titans of Web 2.0 capitalism. He argues that using these corporate Monopsonies is dangerous and irresponsible, calling for open-source and public versions of these types of services.</p>
<p>Thus, it is clear to see why Google was reluctant to join this conference. <a href="http://digitallabor.org/speakers1/frank_pascale" target="_blank">Frank Pasquale</a> forcefully called on Google to be more transparent. Given what was discussed above, as well as Google’s central status in our day-to-day knowledge-seeking life, Pasquale leaves us with questions to ponder: should its <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PageRank" target="_blank">page-rank</a> algorithm be public? Should Google be allowed to up-rank or down-rank links based their relationship to the company? Should Google be able to simply remove pages from its listings? Should Google be forced to let us know when they do these things? ~nathan</p>
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<title><![CDATA[conference summary part 2: the internet as playground and factory]]></title>
<link>http://sociologycompass.wordpress.com/2009/11/16/conference-summary-part-2-the-internet-as-playground-and-factory/</link>
<pubDate>Mon, 16 Nov 2009 07:46:42 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>nathanjurgenson</dc:creator>
<guid>http://sociologycompass.wordpress.com/2009/11/16/conference-summary-part-2-the-internet-as-playground-and-factory/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[by nathan jurgenson Following PJ Rey’s excellent summary of the Internet as Playground and Factory y]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>by <a href="http://nathanjurgenson.wordpress.com/" target="_blank">nathan jurgenson</a></p>
<p><img class="alignleft size-thumbnail wp-image-4941" title="500px-Google_wordmark.svg" src="http://sociologycompass.wordpress.com/files/2009/11/500px-google_wordmark-svg.png?w=128" alt="500px-Google_wordmark.svg" width="135" height="47" />Following PJ Rey’s <a href="http://sociologycompass.wordpress.com/2009/11/15/conference-summary-part-i-the-internet-as-playground-and-factory/" target="_blank">excellent summary of the Internet as Playground and Factory</a> yesterday, I offer a few additional observations from the conference this past weekend, focusing on Web 2.0 capitalism, and Google as the primary target. The roughly 100 presenters were not joined by Google, as the company said that the conference content seemed “slightly anti-capitalist.” Much of the content, indeed, took the corporate ownership of our productive labor online to task.</p>
<p>A common theme was how to discuss Marx’s <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labor_theory_of_value#Marx.27s_contribution" target="_blank">Labor Theory of Value</a> with respect to <a href="http://oreilly.com/web2/archive/what-is-web-20.html" target="_blank">Web 2.0</a>. Clearly, companies are exploiting our free labor, but they do not have to coerce us. <a href="http://digitallabor.org/speakers1/julian_k_cklich" target="_blank">Julian Kucklich</a> argued that we now have exploitation without alienation. That is, our unpaid labor is used for corporate surveillance and profit, even if the labor is not alienating or “foreign to ourselves.” Simply, we like using Facebook, Twitter and so on. However, Kucklich further argues that we are taught to think Facebook is fun, that companies use the “ideology of play” to seduce us into producing (or better, prosuming). <a href="http://digitallabor.org/speakers1/martin_roberts" target="_blank">Martin Roberts</a>, in, ironically, perhaps the conference&#8217;s most entertaining presentation, also took to task the culture of “fun”, arguing that we have been trained to see our work as “fun”, making us more productive for the capitalist system. <a href="http://digitallabor.org/speakers1/christian_fuchs" target="_blank">Christian Fuchs</a> most forcefully argued for a communist Internet, stating that exploitation on Web 2.0 is infinite because users are not being paid material wages. A good Marxian, he downplayed the importance of immaterial value gained through sites like Facebook because we live in a capitalism system based on the material. And <a href="http://digitallabor.org/speakers1/ulises_mejias" target="_blank">Ulises Mejias</a> takes Web 2.0 to task for the creation of corporate <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monopsony" target="_blank">Monopsonies</a>, where we have seen Facebook, Amazon, eBay, YouTube, Google and so on become corporate titans of Web 2.0 capitalism. He argues that using these corporate Monopsonies is dangerous and irresponsible, calling for open-source and public versions of these types of services.</p>
<p>Thus, it is clear to see why Google was reluctant to join this conference. <a href="http://digitallabor.org/speakers1/frank_pascale" target="_blank">Frank Pasquale</a> forcefully called on Google to be more transparent. Given what was discussed above, as well as Google’s central status in our day-to-day knowledge-seeking life, Pasquale leaves us with questions to ponder: should its <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PageRank" target="_blank">page-rank</a> algorithm be public? Should Google be allowed to up-rank or down-rank links based their relationship to the company? Should Google be able to simply remove pages from its listings? Should Google be forced to let us know when they do these things? ~nathan</p>
<p style="text-align:left;font-size:8pt;"><a href="http://www.googlizationofeverything.com/" target="_blank"><img title="square-eye32" src="http://sociologycompass.wordpress.com/files/2008/11/square-eye32.png" alt="square-eye32" width="30" height="30" /></a> <a href="http://www.googlizationofeverything.com/" target="_blank">The Googlization of Everything<br />
</a></p>
<p style="text-align:left;font-size:8pt;">Add to: <a title="Add to Facebook" href="http://www.facebook.com/sharer.php?u=http://sociologycompass.wordpress.com/2009/11/16/conference-summary-part-2-the-internet-as-playground-and-factory" target="_blank">Facebook</a> &#124; <a title="Add to Digg" href="http://digg.com/submit?phase=2&#38;url=http%3A%2F%2Fsociologycompass.wordpress.com%2F2009%2F11%2F16%2Fconference-summary-part-2-the-internet-as-playground-and-factory&#38;title=conference%20summary%20part%202%3A%20the%20internet%20as%20playground%20and..." target="_blank">Digg</a> &#124; <a title="Add to Del.icio.us" href="http://del.icio.us/post?url=http%3A%2F%2Fsociologycompass.wordpress.com%2F2009%2F11%2F16%2Fconference-summary-part-2-the-internet-as-playground-and-factory&#38;title=conference%20summary%20part%202%3A%20the%20internet%20as%20playground%20and%20factory" target="_blank">Del.icio.us</a> &#124; <a title="Add to Stumbleupon" href="http://www.stumbleupon.com/submit?url=http%3A%2F%2Fsociologycompass.wordpress.com%2F2009%2F11%2F16%2Fconference-summary-part-2-the-internet-as-playground-and-factory&#38;title=conference%20summary%20part%202%3A%20the%20internet%20as%20playground%20and%20factory" target="_blank">Stumbleupon</a> &#124; <a title="Add to Reddit" href="http://reddit.com/submit?url=http%3A%2F%2Fsociologycompass.wordpress.com%2F2009%2F11%2F16%2Fconference-summary-part-2-the-internet-as-playground-and-factory&#38;title=conference%20summary%20part%202%3A%20the%20internet%20as%20playground%20and%20factory" target="_blank">Reddit</a> &#124; <a title="Add to Blinklist" href="http://www.blinklist.com/index.php?Action=Blink/addblink.php&#38;Description=&#38;Url=http%3A%2F%2Fsociologycompass.wordpress.com%2F2009%2F11%2F16%2Fconference-summary-part-2-the-internet-as-playground-and-factory&#38;Title=conference%20summary%20part%202%3A%20the%20internet%20as%20playground%20and%20factory" target="_blank">Blinklist</a> &#124; <a title="Add to Twitter" href="http://twitter.com/home/?status=conference%20summary%20pa...+%40+http%3A%2F%2Fsociologycompass.wordpress.com%2F2009%2F11%2F16%2Fconference-summary-part-2-the-internet-as-playground-and-factory" target="_blank">Twitter</a> &#124; <a title="Add to Technorati" href="http://www.technorati.com/faves?add=http%3A%2F%2Fsociologycompass.wordpress.com%2F2009%2F11%2F16%2Fconference-summary-part-2-the-internet-as-playground-and-factory" target="_blank">Technorati</a> &#124; <a title="Add to Furl" href="http://www.furl.net/storeIt.jsp?u=http%3A%2F%2Fsociologycompass.wordpress.com%2F2009%2F11%2F16%2Fconference-summary-part-2-the-internet-as-playground-and-factory&#38;t=conference%20summary%20part%202%3A%20the%20internet%20as%20playground%20and%20factory" target="_blank">Furl</a> &#124; <a title="Add to Newsvine" href="http://www.newsvine.com/_wine/save?u=http%3A%2F%2Fsociologycompass.wordpress.com%2F2009%2F11%2F16%2Fconference-summary-part-2-the-internet-as-playground-and-factory&#38;h=conference%20summary%20part%202%3A%20the%20internet%20as%20playground%20and%20factory" target="_blank">Newsvine</a></p>
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<title><![CDATA[SIMON RODRIGUEZ: PENSAMIENTO Y ACCION.]]></title>
<link>http://taimaboffil.wordpress.com/2009/11/15/simon-rodriguez-pensamiento-y-accion/</link>
<pubDate>Sun, 15 Nov 2009 16:22:09 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>Manuel Boffil Bello</dc:creator>
<guid>http://taimaboffil.wordpress.com/2009/11/15/simon-rodriguez-pensamiento-y-accion/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[ Simón Rodríguez, junto a Francisco de Miranda y Simón Bolívar, parece que tenían un destino común, ]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><div style="text-align:justify;"><strong> </strong><span style="color:#333333;"><strong>Simón Rodríguez, junto a Francisco de Miranda y Simón Bolívar, parece que tenían un destino común, y cumplieron sus roles históricos, irrumpiendo en contra de las instituciones y lo instituido en sus contextos de vida y obra realizada o en proceso de concreción.-</strong></span></div>
<p style="text-align:justify;"> <a rel="attachment wp-att-645" href="http://taimaboffil.wordpress.com/2009/11/15/simon-rodriguez-pensamiento-y-accion/t_250px_simn_rodrguez_107-3/"><img title="t_250px_simn_rodrguez_107" src="http://taimaboffil.wordpress.com/files/2009/11/t_250px_simn_rodrguez_1072.jpg?w=250" alt="t_250px_simn_rodrguez_107" width="250" height="300" /></a> SIMON RODRIGUEZ</p>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;"> Nos toca, tratar en las siguientes páginas, de  acercarnos al  pensamiento y acción de Simón Rodríguez.</h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;">Formarse un pensamiento propio, crítico, revolucionario, original, en las  colonias españolas americanas, entre 28 de Octubre  1769 (Nace Simón Narciso Jesús Rodríguez) y 1864 (28 de Febrero muere, S. Rodríguez),  parece ser de hombres con cualidades y grandeza excepcional.</h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#ff0000;"><span style="color:#ff0000;">Cuál es el contexto en América Central y del Sur, europeo y norteamericano, que le correspondió vivir a Simón Rodríguez.</span></span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;">1.- Se había producido la revolución Francesa.</h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;"> </h3>
<h3>2.- Había sido declarada la independencia de Haití. 1.789 Sublevación de Toussaint L´Ouverture contra Francia y la Declaración de Independencia.</h3>
<h3> </h3>
<h3>3.- Había ocurrido las sublevaciones de Gual y España, los alzamientos del negro Andresote.</h3>
<h3>4.- España estaba como imperio decayendo y es impuesto Napoleón como emperador.</h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;">5.- Ya se había producido la declaración de Independencia de E.E.U.U de Inglaterra.</h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;">6.- La Monarquía y la iglesia controlaban la vida de las familias caraqueñas, prohibían</h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;">la lectura de determinados libros. La educación era conforme lo señalaba la Iglesia.</h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;">7.- Se hacía cumplir la santa inquisición.</h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;">8.- En las colonias americanas, España establece una economía extractiva de piedras Preciosas, especies y alimentos.  Hay una economía de puertos.</h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;">9.- La fuerza de trabajo fundamental, es la de los esclavos e indios, quienes ayudaron en labores agrícolas,  construcción de fuertes, ciudades, iglesias y pueblos.</h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;">10.-Hay una clara diferenciación de clases sociales, los blancos peninsulares, los Blancos criollos, los pardos, los mestizos,  indígenas,  esclavos.</h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;">11.-La etapa Colonial Española, impuso su cultura, su religión, sus leyes, se produjo la cultura de la dominación, de la explotación de la exclusión social, en la América de habla española.</h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;">12.- En Europa se producen transformaciones políticas-económicas, se está pasando de la etapa socio económica feudal, a la era del capitalismo, de las primeras industrias, de  conformación  de las burguesías nacionales, de la acumulación del capital, de la Ciencia como ordenador de la vida terrenal y la religión como ordenador de lo espiritual.</h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#ff0000;"> SIMÓN RODRÍGUEZ: SU PENSAMIENTO.</span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;">Es importante resaltar que  el contexto, social, cultural, político, económico e ideológico que le correspondió accionar a Simón Rodríguez, era sin duda alguna adversa a un pensamiento liberador, al concepto de igualdad, educación general, al pensamiento crítico, creador. Le correspondió vivir en sociedades que pretendían ser estáticas.</h3>
<h3>El mismo Francisco de Miranda considera a la educación impartida en las colonias españolas como: “inferior, inútil y despreciable” (Bohórquez, 109-2.006), es ésta una opinión importante, dada la cantidad de viajes por países del mundo, como España, Francia, Rusia, Estados Unidos que recorrió el Precursor. Miranda en su estadías, había podido apreciar y comparar la sociedad monárquica y las nacientes sociedades  republicanas.</h3>
<h3>A Simón Rodríguez,  sus viajes por Europa y lecturas de Montesquieu, Rousseau, Voltaire, Locke, Saint Simon, han debido despertar su pensamiento liberador, igualitario.</h3>
<h3>Recordemos que la invasión española, el proceso de dominación, destrucción cultural originaria, modelo económico de extracción,  duró  desde 1492, hasta finales del siglo XVIII, cuando culminaron los procesos independentistas-coloniales en nuestra América. La pertenencia al imperio español, por parte de la mayoría de los habitantes de la colonia era  aceptada como un “hecho natural”, no obstante en más de 300 años de ocupación colonial, los elementos identitarios, culturales, la memoria histórica de los  blancos criollos, pardos,  indios y negros, la territorialidad, los lazos o vínculos de una comunidad diferenciada y diferente  al poder colonial, estaban en pleno reconocimiento.</h3>
<h3>Convencerse que un modelo Monárquico, no era el conveniente para los habitantes de estas tierras, sino el modelo republicano, que la educación la cual sólo era impartida para una minoría, que apenas llegaba al 1 % de la población,  era inadecuada, insuficiente, no era popular, y que tenia carencias pedagógicas y formativas; llegar a estas conclusiones, estando subsumido en un contexto histórico de costumbres, educación y religión dominante, no era fácil.  Resultaba necesario haber adquirido, una cosmovisión universal, una capacidad de  análisis, comparación  de situaciones y regiones diversas, haber tenido acceso a lecturas que generaban reflexión, y estar en contacto con sujetos históricos, que andaban en la búsqueda de nuevas respuestas y soluciones a problemas concretos que eran observados en la realidad (1) de la pachamama   (Vocablo Aymara. Mitología Inca. madre tierra). Este era el caso de Simón Rodríguez.</h3>
<h3>La conciencia de NUESTRA AMÉRICA, separada de  España, se inicia con Francisco de Miranda, quien denomina a estas tierras la América meridional, Colombia otros la denominaban Colombeia. Este pensamiento se fortalece con Simón Bolívar y Simón Rodríguez (pag. 200-206 ibidem). Es de aclarar que para Miranda Colombia o la América meridional se demarcan: “…comprendiendo esta desde el Missisipi hasta la Patagonia” (Bohórquez, 200-2008). El prócer Cubano José Martí, desarrolló un profundo ensayo programático titulado NUESTRA AMERICA (1.891) (Diccionario Enciclopédico de la letras de América Latina, 200- 1995)</h3>
<h3>Las doctrinas europeas, de la Revolución Francesa de libertad, igualdad y fraternidad, encontraban, en los suelos del nuevo mundo, un escenario virgen para su realización.</h3>
<h3>Señala Simón Rodríguez que</h3>
<h3>“Los filósofos de la Europa, convencidos de  la inutilidad de su doctrina En el mundo viejo, quisieran poder volar hasta el nuevo…” (Rodríguez, 66, Chile-1834)<br />
Observemos que, la difusión de la nuevas doctrinas en la pachamama (madre tierra)  no la hicieron, los filósofos europeos, pero si los conocedores de esas doctrinas quienes las trajeron al nuevo mundo, y las adaptaron a nuestras realidades, las ideas de libertad, igualdad,  de educación popular y  general.</h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#ff0000;">LA GUERRA SIMULADA</span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#ff0000;"><br />
</span>Decía Simón Rodríguez: “…la sociedad es una guerra simulada”.</h3>
<h3>Hoy se dice que en la sociedad hay una lucha de clases, las clases oprimidas en contra de las clases explotadoras.</h3>
<h3>Y más adelante expone “…la América no ha de  imitar servilmente, sino ser original”</h3>
<h3>Ciertamente, la guerra simulada estaba presente desde la invasión española, con el saqueo de todas las riquezas extraídas, en piedras preciosas, obras de arte de los indígenas, obras arqueológicas, literatura indígena, la imposición religiosa,   cultural,  lingüística del idioma español. Señala Fernando Báez: “La educación escolástica fue un instrumento para borrar</h3>
<h3>la memoria del pasado latinoamericano: los centros educativos sirvieron para formar una elite conservadora. …los españoles  en cambio insistieron con la fundación de universidades que repetían el modelo de Salamanca y Alcalá de Henares…llama la atención que antes de la existencia de Harvard (1636), ya existían trece universidades en América latina, al servicio de los intereses escolásticos…fueron trescientos años de aristotelismo y tomismo… De un total de casi ciento setenta mil graduados, que debían contar con la autorización papal para obtener su título, en su mayor parte las generaciones fueron asimiladas y sus investigaciones y obras se insertaron en la tradición dominante. Las bibliotecas universitarias no eran públicas y no todos los libros podían ser leídos,…las cátedras se daban en latín (Baez,122-2008).</h3>
<h3> </h3>
<h3><span style="color:#ff0000;">IDEAS! IDEAS!</span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;">Con una visión futurista dijo Simón Rodríguez:  <br />
<span style="color:#ff0000;">Ideas¡, ideas!, primero que letras</span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#ff0000;">La sabiduría de Europa y la prosperidad de los </span><span style="color:#ff0000;">Estados  Unidos, son dos enemigos de la libertad de pensar, en </span><span style="color:#ff0000;">América.</span></h3>
<h3><span style="color:#ff0000;"> </span></h3>
<h3><span style="color:#ff0000;"> </span><span style="color:#333333;">Decía Simón Rodríguez, “la Libertad de pensar”, es decir la libertad de ser “nosotros mismos”, no somos europeos ni somos norteamericanos, somos hijos de la pachamama, de la madre tierra, tenemos un tiempo histórico, somos el aquí y el ahora, somos el ser, el conocer y el sentir de un pueblo con identidad, historia, geografía, costumbres, tradiciones, planes y proyectos, sueños propios. Nos pensamos, nos descubrimos como la otredad, el otro, el diferente en la diversidad, pero que nos reconocemos en la convivencia. Somos una cultura llena de creatividad, totalidad e historicidad. Creatividad porque creamos objetos y significados vivientes unívocos. Totalidad pues existen un conjunto de significados y prácticas de lo latinoamericano y caribeño. Historicidad, pues, hay una secuencia, un proceso, una memoria.</span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#333333;">Nos plantea Simón Rodríguez un grito por la supervivencia. No  hay cultura sino hay  supervivencia, frente a las amenazas hegemónicas, imperialistas, debe haber resistencia, defensa y protección. Una cultura que no pretende ser hegemónica acepta la coexistencia, hay negociación entre iguales respetando las diferencias. Y una cultura no hegemónica practica la convivencia, con ello se relacionan los valores compartidos, los valores comunes que refuerzan la identidad.</span></h3>
<h3><span style="color:#888888;"> </span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#ff0000;">HABLAR DE LA COSA PUBLICA     </span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#ff0000;"> </span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;">
<span style="color:#333333;">Señala Simón Rodríguez:    “En la Sociedad Republicana No es permitido decir No me toca hablar de la cosa pública Ni preguntar a otro…” (pag.69. Ibídem)</span></h3>
<h3><span style="color:#333333;">Sabemos que las grandes decisiones de la época colonial y luego de la independencia, a pesar que la mayoría de la población participó en la gesta independentista, la realizaban, los sectores de los blancos criollos, y algunos de los que participaron en la gesta independentista, que luego se dedicaron a ejercer el poder excluyente.  Para participar en la vida pública se requería poseer determinada cantidad de dinero. Esto limitó la posibilidad del ejercicio político, para ser electo  diputado, concejal, u ocupar determinados cargos públicos. Plantea Simón Rodríguez, que todo republicano debe opinar sobre la cosa pública, es decir, participar, no esperar que otro le informe o le diga. En Latinoamérica y el Caribe se está construyendo un nuevo modelo de democracia,  la participativa, donde las grandes mayorías de la población viven con intensidad  y constantemente el debate público y la toma de decisiones. Hoy la conformación de los consejos comunales, es el ejercicio político más novedoso e importante que se esté desarrollando en un país. Son las comunidades organizadas, construyendo sus propios proyectos, resolviendo sus necesidades. La participación en los asuntos políticos, económicos. Culturales, educativos, de salud, forman a un individuo corresponsable, coautor de su propia historia.</span></h3>
<h3><span style="color:#333333;"> </span></h3>
<h3><span style="color:#333333;"> </span></h3>
<h3><span style="color:#ff0000;">HACER NEGOCIO CON LA EDUCACION</span></h3>
<h3><span style="color:#888888;"> </span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#333333;">También señalaba Rodríguez: “ Hacer negocio con la educación Es…..diga el lector todo lo malo que pueda todavía le quedará mucho por decir.”</span></h3>
<h3><span style="color:#333333;">Es indudable que en la realidad Venezolana y de América Latina,  son muchos los que han hecho negocios con la educación, pero más grave, es que se limitaban la educación para determinados sectores llamados intelectuales, dejando a las mayorías en la plena ignorancia, excluidos de toda formación, además de pretender privatizar la educación, colocándola como una mercancía, de donde se pueden obtener ganancias.</span></h3>
<h3><span style="color:#333333;">Fortalecer este cuestionamiento de Simón Rodríguez, el negocio con la educación, cobra hoy plena vigencia, no sólo en la realidad venezolana, sino mundial. Se corre el riesgo, de acuerdo a concepciones excluyentes, en dejar las áreas técnicas para las mayorías, los países periféricos, mientras  el conocimiento científico, la investigación y los grandes descubrimientos, quedan  para el dominio de la élite imperialista mundial. Reafirma su idea cuando dice Rodríguez:</span></h3>
<h3><span style="color:#333333;"> </span> </h3>
<h3><span style="color:#333333;">“Los conocimientos son <span style="color:#ff0000;">PROPIEDAD PUBLICA</span> puede renunciarla una generación (sic) pero no privar de ella a las siguientes  no lea; pero no oculte ni destruya (pag. 92).</span></h3>
<h3><span style="color:#333333;">El conocimiento es propiedad pública, no propiedad privada, esto es fundamental reivindicarlo, como pensamiento libertador, emancipador, frente a quienes pretenden a través de los derechos de autor, derechos de propiedad intelectual, limitar la difusión de las ideas, ciencias, conocimientos que sirven  a la humanidad, para convertir al conocimiento en mercancía,  en negocio. Los descubrimientos científicos, en   medicamentos,  tecnología médica, deben ser declarados conocimientos libres, públicos y dentro de los derechos humanos, no sujetos al comercio, al libre mercado, deben ser conocimientos de la humanidad y para la humanidad. Hoy se pretende que un poema, sea  una mercancía. La difusión de un ejercicio para la salud es comerciable, y posee derecho de autor, propiedad intelectual. La educación es vista por el sector neoliberal como una mercancía. Por su puesto, con esto se pretende excluir a la mayoría de la población del conocimiento, la cultura. Sólo las elites podrían educarse, acceder al conocimiento, ser “cultos”. Las políticas públicas de los gobiernos progresistas, bolivarianos, humanistas y socialistas,  de acceso a la educación, la cultura, la salud, rompen este esquema privatizador del conocimiento. Elevar la calidad de vida de la población, requiere como necesidad central el acceso a la educación,  la cultura y el conocimiento científico y técnico, sin cortapisas. Debemos formar,  al intelectual orgánico ( Gramsci), comprometido, consustanciado con la realidad de la comunidad, de la comuna, de la nación, de la región latinoamericana y caribeña, con los oprimidos del mundo, con el trabajador y obrero explotado. Formar una nueva ciudadanía y un nuevo republicano.<br />
Las doctrinas políticas,  religiosas, filosóficas, científicas, deben estar desde su teoría, fundamentos y praxis, altamente comprometidas con la liberación y emancipación de los pueblos.</span></h3>
<h3><span style="color:#333333;">“…Si los pobres no tienen derecho al Saber, Si se les enseña…i que, Quien los enseña i cómo”, (pag.115, ibídem) “…entre los que vemos con desdén, hai muchísimos que serían mejores que nosotros, si hubieran tenido escuela”(pag.116, ibídem).</span></h3>
<h3><span style="color:#333333;">Por ello es que, en los colegios fundados por Simón Rodríguez aceptaba, indígenas, muchachos pobres y esto escandalizaba a los godos de las ciudades de aquella época y a los actuales.</span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#ff0000;"> </span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#ff0000;">Y señala Simón Rodríguez: “ Servirse del n</span><span style="color:#ff0000;">ombre de Dios, para respaldar injusticias Es BLASFEMIA</span></h3>
<h3><span style="color:#333333;"> </span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#333333;"> </span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#333333;">Es oportuno un planteamiento del pensamiento de Marx:</span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#333333;">«Los principios sociales del cristianismo justificaron la opresión del proletariado [...] trasladan al cielo la corrección de todas las infamias [...] declaran que todos los actos viles de  los opresores son el justo castigo del pecado [...]»91.</span></h3>
<h3><span style="color:#333333;">Es una crítica certera –y totalmente pertinente desde                       un cristianismo de liberación– contra la «religión de resignación», de dominación, fetichista. (Dussel,54-1993)</span></h3>
<h3>
<span style="color:#333333;">«Por lo tanto (pensaba Münzer), el cielo no es una cosa del otro mundo; hay que buscarlo en esta vida, y la tarea de los creyentes consiste en establecer aquí: en la tierra, ese cielo que es el Reino de Dios»97.  (pag 57-ibidem) importante para América Latina, África y Asia en la actualidad. Tómese muy en serio la indicación de Marx de que el «cielo» hay que realizarlo aquí en la «tierra» –es, exactamente, la propuesta de la Teología de la Liberación latinoamericana contemporánea–. El «Reino de Dios», dice Marx, es tarea terrestre, como pensaba el fundador del cristianismo: «¡Bienaventurados los pobres, porque tienen el Reino de Dios!» (Lucas 6,20); «Sepan que ya llega el Reino de Dios» (Lucas 10,12). (pag 57-pie de página-ibídem)(Negritas nuestras).</span></h3>
<h3><span style="color:#333333;"> </span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#ff0000;">EDUCACION POPULAR</span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#ff0000;"> </span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#333333;">Dice Simón Rodríguez:   “El objeto del autor, tratando de las Sociedades Americanas, es la EDUCACIÓN POPULAR   y          por POPULAR……entiende…..JENERAL”. (PAG.41,ibidem)</span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#333333;">Era necesario según Rodríguez, brindar la educación general, a todos por igual y afirmaba que: “Sólo con la esperanza de conseguir que se piense en la EDUCACION DEL PUEBLO, se puede abogar por la INSTRUCCIÓN JENERAL…” y luego afirma: “…los discípulos no se han de distinguir por lo que pagan, ni por lo que sus padres valen…”(pag.46,ibiden) “…los gobiernos deben proporcionar JENERALMENTE los medios de adquirirlos &#8212;y pensar mucho en los modos de dar esos medios”.(pag.47).</span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#333333;">Hoy las políticas de los gobiernos han de pensar en cómo garantizar el acceso a la educación, al conocimiento.  Las directrices emanadas del mal llamado CONSENSO DE WASHINGTON, ordenaban a los países, (sólo enumeramos las 2 primeras):</span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#333333;">“1.- Eliminación del déficit fiscal mediante la reducción del gasto público, que apunta a la reducción del presupuesto destinado a salud, educación, seguridad social…” (Negritas nuestras)</span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#333333;">2.- Reducción del gasto público hacia aquellos sectores más rentables de la economía. (Vega Cantori, 158-2008)</span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#333333;">En este “Falso Consenso” señala Vega cantori “…impuesto por los Estados Unidos, aparecen claras las pautas de sometimiento de las economías nacionales  a los intereses del imperialismo…” Y más grave es que se pretende con estas políticas disminuir el gasto público en educación, es decir, dejar a millones de seres humanos sin conocimiento, educación y cultura, amén de la salud y seguridad social,  en manos de los mercaderes de la vida.</span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;">Simón Rodríguez.: “Si los americanos quieren que la revolución política, que el peso de las cosas ha hecho y que las circunstancias han protegido, les traiga bienes hagan una revolución económica, y empiécenla por los campos; de ellos pasará a los talleres y diariamente notarán mejoras que nunca conseguirán empezando por las ciudades….Los que quieren seguir con los privilegios están enfermando a la república y más adelante dice “La enfermedad del siglo es una sed insaciable de riquezas”       Es esto lo que se está iniciando en Venezuela, una revolución económica, política, cultural, educativa, en donde se eliminen los privilegios que unos pocos han ostentado y aún ostentan groseramente.</h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#333333;">La concepción de la educación popular, general, para todos con igualdad de oportunidades, es lo que garantizará en el futuro inmediato la emancipación y el mejoramiento de la calidad de vida de nuestros pueblos. Hacia estas políticas públicas apunta el pensamiento Bolivariano, Robinsoniano y de los libertadores de NUESTRA AMERICA. Simón Rodríguez ha sido el primero en plantear una teoría educativa, para los habitantes sur americanos y caribeños. Podemos caracterizarlo como antiimperialista, trato el problema de las clases sociales, entendió a la escuela como aparato para la transformación, analizó la inclusión social, desarrollo un método de enseñanza en contacto con la naturaleza y con la comunidad, entendió la educación como acción y reflexión permanente, en definitiva fue un pedagogo revolucionario, para su tiempo y vigente en su esencia.</span></h3>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#333333;">Por supuesto todo este pensamiento de Simón Rodríguez fue ampliado, por su alumno predilecto, SIMÓN BOLÍVAR, quien desarrolló, con gran acierto un pensamiento superior al de su época. El amor de Simón Bolívar, por Simón RodrígueEl pensamiento de Simón Rodríguez  sigue vigente y  su preocupación antiimperialista. La sabiduría europea a obnubilado, por muchos años a los habitantes de estas tierras, querer ser primero europeos, luego norteamericanos, ha sido producto de la penetración cultural e  ideológica. Más hoy, el imperialismo, con sus MASS MEDIA, su libre mercado, sus políticas de consumo, irrumpen en cualquier nación, comunidad, familia trastocando lo cotidiano del ser, creando la ilusión del capital y el mito consumista. La prosperidad norteamericana es  vendida como el ideal de desarrollo, lo que no se preguntan, es cómo han logrado esa prosperidad los EEUU, a costa de la explotación de los países latinoamericanos, de la extracción a precios viles de  sus materias primas, de sus trabajadores. Hoy, si se paralizan los trabajadores latinos, se paraliza Norteamérica. El trabajo duro, lo hacen los chicanos o latinos.z, se manifestó extraordinariamente, en cartas y actos de afecto supremo hacia el maestro.<br />
</span><span style="color:#888888;"><span style="color:#333333;">(1)    Podemos extrapolar, esta situación a la época actual, cuando resulta normal cultural, jurídica, política y económicamente que se explote al trabajador, nadie se horroriza hoy de que un trabajador sea explotado, hombres, mujeres o niños, las instituciones responden con mucha debilidad. Solo observemos a un obrero en la construcción de un edificio, trabajando de 7 Am a  4,  5 o 6 Pm, en una jornada extenuante, ese obrero sólo es importante para la producción de plusvalía, nunca el salario podrá permitir la recuperación de sus fuerzas y energías perdidas en la labor, la empresa sólo le paga el salario, para comer, no se preocupa de elevar su formación, educación, condición de vida de él y de su familia, decir esto es subversivo para el sector privado, es insólito para el patrono, pero en muchos casos para el mismo trabajador, producto de la alienación..    Se presentan procedimientos engorrosos, leguleyezcos, con retardos procedimentales, para lograr que se le cancelen las prestaciones sociales a un trabajador, en donde la empresa comienza negando la relación laboral. Los recursos de la seguridad social, es desviada por las mismas empresas y no llegan a las instituciones, aunque al trabajador se le descuenta de su salario o sueldo, la parte que le corresponde aportar. Avanzar en un proceso educativo, cultural, jurídico-político y económico que rompa el sistema de explotación del trabajador, del obrero equivale hoy a la lucha librada por los próceres, los independentistas latinoamericanos y caribeños, y los educadores con visión progresista de la época colonial.<br />
</span><br />
<span style="color:#ff0000;">FUENTE: BOLETIN DE NOTICIAS PSUV</span></span></h3>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#888888;"><span style="text-decoration:underline;"><span style="color:#ff0000;">BIBLIOGRAFIA:</span></span></span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#ff0000;"> </span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#ff0000;">1.-  Biografía de Simón Rodríguez.  Universidad  Nacional Experimental Simón Rodríguez.Caracas. 2005.</span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#ff0000;">   2.-Francisco de Miranda: Carmen Bohórquez Moran. Editorial. El perro y la rana. 2006.</span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#ff0000;"> </span><span style="color:#ff0000;">3.- Simón Rodríguez: O Inventamos o erramos. Monte Ávila editores. 2004</span></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">
<div><span style="color:#ff0000;">4.- Fernando Báez: El saqueo cultural de América Latina. Editorial Melvin. Debate.2008.</span></div>
<div><span style="color:#ff0000;"> </span></div>
<div><span style="color:#ff0000;">5.-. Enrique Dussel: “Las metáforas teológicas de Marx”. Editorial Verbo Divino. Navarra  1993.</span></div>
<div><span style="color:#ff0000;"> </span></div>
<div><span style="color:#ff0000;">6.- Antonio Gramsci: Antología. Siglo XXI Editores. 1978</span></div>
<div><span style="color:#ff0000;"> </span></div>
<div><span style="color:#ff0000;">7.- Diccionario enciclopédico de las letras de América Latina. Biblioteca Ayacucho. Monte Ávila Editores.1995.</span></div>
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<title><![CDATA[What's Wrong with Generational Wealth]]></title>
<link>http://essaysonreadingcapital.wordpress.com/?p=3</link>
<pubDate>Sat, 14 Nov 2009 22:04:29 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>Tom</dc:creator>
<guid>http://essaysonreadingcapital.wordpress.com/?p=3</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Yesterday I got paid.  This act in itself wasn&#8217;t desperately exciting.  I work freelance and g]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>Yesterday I got paid.  This act in itself wasn&#8217;t desperately exciting.  I work freelance and get paid 2 or 3 times a month so it;s not usually an exillirating event.  But after I got paid this time I went to a cafe and bought a Greek strudel (a delicious pastry stuffed with spinach and feta cheese) and a cup of coffee.  I finished the strudel and as I sipped the coffee I felt an enormous sense of satisfaction.  I felt as though all my work had amounted to something &#8211; that I was transferring my labour, my hard work, my lost time into these products and that was terrifically fulfilling.  It was JS Mill I think who said that one can only truly be happy after a hard days work.</p>
<p>This event reminded me of something I thought about a lot when I was reading chapter 1 of Capital.  Firstly, let me say that I am motivated by an intense jealousy of people who don&#8217;t have to work for their living: lottery winners, land barons and the children of the wealth must have a special circle of hell reserved for them in payment for a life in which they can control their destiny on a daily basis safe in the knowledge that they can be supported financially.  I have tried to console myself that they can&#8217;t possibly truly enjoy their money bacause it doesnt come from sacrifice of time but I just can&#8217;t quite convince myself .  And besides, it does come from sacrifice, just not theirs.</p>
<p>Take inherited wealth.  If someone works all his/her life and then chooses to consume by giving their money (i.e. labour time) to his/her children then id there really anything wrong with this?  Well, yes.  It&#8217;s unfair and it distorts one of the central beliefs of our society, that all people are born equal.  We might argue of course that we are not all born equal just as the person who is born with a natural tallent for football probably isn&#8217;t going to experience life in the same way as the person who is blessed with the perfect genetic make up of a street sweeper.  Unfortunately we don&#8217;t, as yet, have the technology to choose our children&#8217;s genes but we can question all other things that give one person a carefree life of wealth and another a life of toil.</p>
<p>If Mr A. Billionaire wants his progeny not to have to work for the rest of their lives then that is his choice and if his money is the result of his labour of course he has the right to give this money to his children to spend.  He should be able to decide who should benefit from his sacrifice.  As I mentioned I find this unfortunate and although morally I think this man must be free to spend his money however he likes, politically it would be better if these types of transfers were taxed(etc)</p>
<p>So people who receive money through inheritance have the right to spend it not because they earned it but because the person who did earn it wanted them to have it.  This leads to a problem: Capital.  Lots of A. Billionaire&#8217;s money comes from Capital (i.e. he doesn&#8217;t work for it).  Receiving interest on capital in itself is not a problem.  If I earn $1000 dollars and chose not to spend it then the interest I receive is the payment for deferring consumption.  But what about A. Billionaire&#8217;s children?  I have the right to earn interest on my money because I labpured for it.  AB&#8217;s children didn;t work for thier money so although they can consume (as that is the preferrence of the person who earned the moeny) they can;t use thier unearnded income to buy capital.  The right to consume has been transferred to them but the right to own capital has not.</p>
<p>in other words they can buy a Ferrari because it&#8217;s AB&#8217;s wish that they can but this doesn&#8217;t extend to labour.  AB can have my labout because he worked for his money then chose not to spend it but his kids can&#8217;t because although they chose not to spend they didn&#8217;t earn it.</p>
<p>Maybe I can express this using a model with seperate currencies.  Our economic life is centrered around commodities.  I buy a product and therefore enter into a social relationship with th epeople who produced it.  My position is a simple one as the consumer &#8211; the person who is ultimately responsible for hoe that product is made.  But as an owner of capital that social relationship is different&#8230;</p>
<p>Already on a UK tax return there is a separation between earned and unearned income and perhaps this could be made official.  Earned dollars come for work and from interset received on money that came from work. This money can be spent on anything.  Unearnde income is money that somes from anywhere else and this money can&#8217;t be spent on capital.   So people still have the motivation to invest, inovate and keep the capital markets afloat because the profit motive still exists.  But it also means that lottery wonners and lucky children can&#8217;t have people worling fpr them on uneawual terms</p>
<p>To expand this model.  Th egovernment would never be short of money because they could tax unearned income to the hilt.  This would take some of the burden off the worker who has to give a percentage of his salary to society.</p>
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<title><![CDATA[First as Tragedy, Then As Farce.]]></title>
<link>http://stepanovic.wordpress.com/2009/11/14/first-as-tragedy-then-as-farce/</link>
<pubDate>Sat, 14 Nov 2009 14:07:18 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>Lara</dc:creator>
<guid>http://stepanovic.wordpress.com/2009/11/14/first-as-tragedy-then-as-farce/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Slavoj Žižek &#8211; First as Tragedy, Then As Farce Video of the lecture: First as Tragedy, Then As]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[Slavoj Žižek &#8211; First as Tragedy, Then As Farce Video of the lecture: First as Tragedy, Then As]]></content:encoded>
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<title><![CDATA[LA PRODUCTION MARCHANDE. LA MARCHANDISE ET LA MONNAIE]]></title>
<link>http://futurrouge.wordpress.com/2009/11/14/la-production-marchande-la-marchandise-et-la-monnaie/</link>
<pubDate>Sat, 14 Nov 2009 11:25:17 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>Futur Rouge</dc:creator>
<guid>http://futurrouge.wordpress.com/2009/11/14/la-production-marchande-la-marchandise-et-la-monnaie/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[La production marchande est le point de départ et le trait général du capitalisme. Le mode de produc]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><h4 style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#808080;"><span style="font-size:12pt;font-family:Arial;"><br />
<strong><span style="color:#c0c0c0;"> La production marchande est le point de départ et le trait général du capitalisme. </span></strong></p>
<p>Le mode de production capitaliste, qui a succédé au mode de production féodal, est fondé sur l&#8217;exploitation de la classe des ouvriers salariés par la classe des capitalistes. Pour comprendre ce qu&#8217;est au fond le mode de production capitaliste, il faut tout d&#8217;abord ne pas perdre de vue que le régime capitaliste est fondé sur la production marchande : tout y prend forme de marchandise, partout prévaut le principe de l&#8217;achat et de la vente.<br />
</p>
<p>La production marchande est plus ancienne que la production capitaliste. Elle existait déjà sous le régime de l&#8217;esclavage et sous le régime féodal. Dans la période de décomposition de la féodalité, la production marchande simple a servi de base à la naissance de la production capitaliste.<br />
La production marchande simple implique, premièrement, la division sociale du travail dans laquelle des producteurs isolés se spécialisent dans la fabrication de produits déterminés, et, en second lieu, l&#8217;existence de la propriété privée des moyens de production et des produits du travail.<br />
</p>
<p>La production marchande simple des artisans et des paysans se distingue de la production capitaliste en ce qu&#8217;elle repose sur le travail individuel du producteur de marchandises. Cependant, elle est, quant à sa base, du même type que la production capitaliste, puisqu&#8217;elle prend appui sur la propriété privée des moyens de production. La propriété privée engendre nécessairement, entre les producteurs de marchandises, la concurrence qui aboutit à l&#8217;enrichissement d&#8217;une minorité et à la ruine de la majorité. La petite production marchande est donc à l&#8217;origine de la formation et du développement des rapports capitalistes.<br />
</p>
<p>La production marchande revêt en régime capitaliste un caractère prédominant, universel. L&#8217;échange des marchandises, écrivait Lénine, constitue dans la société bourgeoise (marchande) le rapport le plus simple, le plus habituel, le plus fondamental, le plus fréquent, le plus courant, qui se rencontre des milliards de fois. (V. Lénine : « A propos de la dialectique », Cahiers philosophiques, p. 280, Editions Sociales, 1955.)</p>
<p><strong><span style="color:#c0c0c0;"> La marchandise et ses propriétés. Le double caractère du travail incorporé dans la marchandise. </span></strong><br />
</p>
<p>La marchandise est une chose qui, premièrement, satisfait un besoin quelconque de l&#8217;homme et qui,  deuxièmement, est produite, non pas pour la consommation propre, mais pour l&#8217;échange.<br />
L&#8217;utilité d&#8217;un objet, ses propriétés qui lui permettent de satisfaire tel ou tel besoin de l&#8217;homme, en font une valeur d&#8217;usage. La valeur d&#8217;usage peut satisfaire directement le besoin individuel de l&#8217;homme, ou servir de moyen de production de biens matériels. Ainsi, le pain satisfait le besoin de nourriture; le tissu, le besoin de s&#8217;habiller; la valeur d&#8217;usage du métier à tisser consiste en ce qu&#8217;il sert à produire des tissus. Au cours du développement historique, l&#8217;homme découvre des propriétés utiles toujours nouvelles dans les objets et des procédés nouveaux de leur utilisation.<br />
</p>
<p>De nombreuses choses qui n&#8217;ont cependant pas été créées par le travail de l&#8217;homme, ont une valeur d&#8217;usage, comme par exemple, l&#8217;eau de source, les fruits sauvages, etc. Mais toute chose ayant une valeur d&#8217;usage ne constitue pas une marchandise. Pour qu&#8217;un objet puisse devenir marchandise, il doit être un produit du travail destiné à la vente.<br />
</p>
<p>Les valeurs d&#8217;usage forment le contenu matériel de la richesse, quelle que soit la forme sociale de cette richesse. Dans l&#8217;économie marchande, la valeur d&#8217;usage porte en soi la valeur d&#8217;échange de la marchandise. La valeur d&#8217;échange se présente tout d&#8217;abord comme un rapport quantitatif dans lequel les valeurs d&#8217;usage d&#8217;espèce différente sont échangées l&#8217;une contre l&#8217;autre. Par exemple, une hache est échangée contre 20 kilogrammes de grain. Dans ce rapport quantitatif des objets échangés se trouve exprimée leur valeur d&#8217;échange. Des marchandises en quantités déterminées sont assimilées les unes<br />
aux autres; par conséquent, elles ont quelque chose de commun. Ce ne peut être aucune des propriétés physiques des marchandises — leur poids, leur volume, leur forme, etc. Les propriétés naturelles des marchandises déterminent leur utilité, leur valeur d&#8217;usage. La diversité des valeurs d&#8217;usage des<br />
marchandises est une condition nécessaire de l&#8217;échange. Personne n&#8217;échangera des marchandises identiques en qualité, par exemple, du froment pour du froment ou du sucre pour du sucre.<br />
Les valeurs d&#8217;usage des diverses marchandises, qualitativement différentes, ne sont pas quantitativement commensurables.<br />
</p>
<p>Les différentes marchandises n&#8217;ont qu&#8217;une seule propriété commune qui les rende comparables entre elles lors de rechange : elles sont des produits du travail. A la base de l&#8217;égalité de deux marchandises échangées se trouve le travail social dépensé pour les produire. Quand le producteur porte au marché<br />
une hache pour l&#8217;échanger, il constate que l&#8217;on donne pour sa hache 20 kilogrammes de grain. Cela veut dire que la hache vaut autant de travail social que 20 kilogrammes de grain. La valeur est le travail social des producteurs, incorporé dans la marchandise.<br />
</p>
<p>La valeur des marchandises incarne le travail social dépensé pour leur production; c&#8217;est ce que confirment des faits connus de tous. Les biens matériels qui, utiles par eux-mêmes, n&#8217;exigent pas de dépenses de travail, n&#8217;ont pas de valeur, comme par exemple l&#8217;air. Les biens matériels nécessitant une grande quantité de travail possèdent une grande valeur, comme par exemple l&#8217;or, les diamants.<br />
Beaucoup de marchandises qui coûtaient d&#8217;abord cher, ont considérablement diminué de prix depuis que le progrès technique a réduit la quantité de travail nécessaire à leur production. Les variations de dépenses de travail dans la production des marchandises se reflètent d&#8217;ordinaire aussi dans le rapport<br />
quantitatif des marchandises échangées, c&#8217;est-à-dire dans leur valeur d&#8217;échange. Il en résulte que la valeur d&#8217;échange d&#8217;une marchandise est la forme de la manifestation de sa valeur.<br />
</p>
<p>L&#8217;échange des marchandises implique la division sociale du travail entre les propriétaires de ces marchandises. Les producteurs, en assimilant les différentes marchandises les unes aux autres, identifient par là même leurs différentes espèces de travail. Ainsi donc, la valeur exprime des rapports de production entre les producteurs. Ces rapports apparaissent dans l&#8217;échange des marchandises.<br />
La marchandise revêt un double caractère : 1° elle est une valeur d&#8217;usage et 2° elle est une valeur d&#8217;échange. Le double caractère de la marchandise est déterminé par le double caractère du travail incorporé à la marchandise. Les espèces de travail sont aussi variées que les valeurs d&#8217;usage produites.<br />
Le travail du menuisier diffère qualitativement de celui du tailleur, du cordonnier, etc. Les différentes espèces de travail se distinguent les unes des autres par leur but, les procédés de fabrication, les outils et, enfin, par les résultats. Le menuisier travaille à l&#8217;aide d&#8217;une hache, d&#8217;une scie, d&#8217;un rabot, et produit<br />
des articles en bois : tables, chaises, armoires; le tailleur produit des vêtements à l&#8217;aide d&#8217;une machine à coudre, de ciseaux, d&#8217;aiguilles. C&#8217;est ainsi que chaque valeur d&#8217;usage incarne une espèce déterminée de travail : la table, le travail du menuisier; le costume, le travail du tailleur; les chaussures, le travail du cordonnier, etc. Le travail dépensé sous une forme déterminée constitue le travail concret. Le travail concret crée la valeur d&#8217;usage de la marchandise.<br />
</p>
<p>Lors de l&#8217;échange, les marchandises les plus variées provenant des formes diverses du travail concret, sont comparées et assimilées les unes aux autres. Par conséquent, les différentes espèces concrètes de travail cachent derrière elles quelque chose de commun à tout travail. Le travail du menuisier comme<br />
celui du tailleur, malgré leur différence qualitative, comporte une dépense productive du cerveau humain, des nerfs, des muscles, etc., et c&#8217;est dans ce sens qu&#8217;il apparaît comme un travail humain identique uniforme, du travail en général. Le travail des producteurs de marchandises en tant que dépense de la force de travail de l&#8217;homme en général, indépendamment de sa forme concrète, est du travail abstrait. Le travail abstrait forme la valeur de la marchandise.<br />
</p>
<p>Travail abstrait et travail concret sont les deux aspects du travail incorporé dans la marchandise.<br />
Tout travail est d&#8217;une part dépense, dans le sens physiologique, de force de travail humaine, et à ce titre de travail humain identique ou travail humain abstrait il forme la valeur des marchandises.<br />
D&#8217;autre part, tout travail est dépense de force de travail humaine, déterminée par un but particulier, et à ce titre de travail concret utile il produit des valeurs d&#8217;usage. (K. Marx : Le Capital, livre I, t. I,<br />
p. 61.)<br />
</p>
<p>Dans une société où règne la propriété privée des moyens de production, le double caractère du travail incorporé dans la marchandise reflète la contradiction entre le travail privé et le travail social des producteurs. La propriété privée des moyens de production sépare les hommes, fait du travail de<br />
chaque producteur son affaire privée. Chaque producteur de marchandises travaille isolément. Le travail des différents ouvriers n&#8217;est ni concerté ni  coordonné à l&#8217;échelle de toute la société. Mais d&#8217;autre part, la division sociale du travail traduit l&#8217;existence d&#8217;une multitude de liens entre les producteurs qui<br />
travaillent les uns pour les autres. Plus la division du travail dans la société est poussée et plus il y a de diversité dans les produits des différents producteurs, et plus leur interdépendance est grande. Par conséquent, le travail du producteur isolé est au fond un travail social; il constitue une parcelle du<br />
travail de la société dans son ensemble. Les marchandises, qui sont les produits de diverses formes de travail privé concret, sont également en même temps les produits de travail humain en général, de travail abstrait.<br />
</p>
<p>La contradiction propre à la production marchande consiste donc en ce que le travail des producteurs de marchandises, tout en étant directement leur affaire privée, revêt en même temps un caractère social. Par suite de l&#8217;isolement des producteurs de marchandises, le caractère social de leur travail dans<br />
le processus de production reste caché. Il ne se manifeste que dans le processus de l&#8217;échange, au moment où la marchandise apparaît sur le marché pour être échangée contre une autre marchandise. C&#8217;est seulement dans le processus d&#8217;échange qu&#8217;il est possible d&#8217;établir si le travail de tel ou tel producteur est nécessaire à la société et s&#8217;il obtiendra l&#8217;agrément de la société. Le travail abstrait, qui forme la valeur de la marchandise, constitue une catégorie historique, il est la forme spécifique du travail social propre seulement à l&#8217;économie marchande. Dans l&#8217;économie naturelle, les hommes produisent non pas pour l&#8217;échange, mais pour leur propre consommation; en conséquence, le caractère social de leur travail se présente directement sous sa forme concrète. Ainsi, quand le seigneur féodal prenait aux serfs le surproduit sous la forme d&#8217;une rente-travail ou d&#8217;une rente en nature, il s&#8217;appropriait leur travail directement sous la forme de redevance en travail ou de certains produits. Le travail social dans ces conditions ne prenait pas la forme d&#8217;un travail abstrait. Dans la production marchande, les produits sont confectionnés non pour la consommation personnelle du producteur, mais pour la vente.<br />
Le caractère social du travail ne se manifeste que sur le marché, par l&#8217;assimilation d&#8217;une marchandise à une autre, en ramenant les formes concrètes du travail au travail abstrait qui constitue la valeur de la marchandise. Ce processus s&#8217;opère spontanément, en dehors de tout plan général, à l&#8217;insu du producteur.</p>
<p><strong><span style="color:#c0c0c0;"> Le temps de travail socialement nécessaire. Le travail simple et le travail complexe. </span></strong><br />
</p>
<p>La grandeur de la valeur d&#8217;une marchandise est déterminée par le temps de travail. Plus la production d&#8217;une marchandise nécessite de temps, et plus grande est sa valeur. On sait que les producteurs travaillent dans des conditions différentes et dépensent pour la production de marchandises identiques<br />
une quantité différente de temps. Est-ce à dire que plus le travailleur est paresseux, plus les conditions dans lesquelles il travaille sont défavorables, et plus la valeur de la marchandise produite par lui sera élevée ? Non, évidemment. La grandeur de la valeur de la marchandise n&#8217;est point déterminée par le<br />
temps de travail individuel dépensé pour la production de la marchandise par tel ou tel producteur, mais par le temps de travail socialement nécessaire.<br />
</p>
<p>Le temps de travail socialement nécessaire est celui qu&#8217;exige la fabrication de telle ou telle marchandise, dans des conditions sociales de production moyennes, c&#8217;est-à-dire avec un niveau technique moyen, une habileté moyenne et une intensité de travail moyenne. Il correspond aux conditions de production, dans lesquelles sont fabriquées la plupart des marchandises d&#8217;un type donné.<br />
Le temps de travail socialement nécessaire varie selon le degré de la productivité du travail. La productivité du travail s&#8217;exprime dans la quantité de produits créés en une unité de temps de travail.<br />
Elle augmente grâce au perfectionnement ou à l&#8217;utilisation plus complète des instruments de production, aux progrès de la science, à l&#8217;habileté accrue du travailleur, à la rationalisation du travail et à d&#8217;autres améliorations dans le processus de production. Plus la productivité du travail est élevée, et moins de temps est nécessaire à la production d&#8217;une unité d&#8217;une marchandise donnée, et plus la valeur de cette marchandise est basse.<br />
</p>
<p>De la productivité du travail, il faut distinguer l&#8217;intensité du travail. L&#8217;intensité du travail est déterminée par les dépenses de travail en une unité de temps. L&#8217;accroissement de l&#8217;intensité du travail signifie l&#8217;augmentation des dépenses de travail dans un laps de temps donné. Un travail plus intensif s&#8217;incarne dans une plus grande quantité de produits et crée plus de valeur en une unité de temps qu&#8217;un travail moins intensif.<br />
</p>
<p>A la production des marchandises prennent part des travailleurs de toute qualification. Le travail de l&#8217;homme ne possédant aucune formation spéciale est un travail simple. Le travail demandant une formation spéciale est un travail complexe, ou un travail qualifié.<br />
</p>
<p>Le travail complexe crée dans une même unité de temps, une valeur plus grande que le travail simple.<br />
La valeur de la marchandise créée par le travail complexe contient aussi la part du travail consacrée à l&#8217;apprentissage du travailleur et à l&#8217;augmentation de sa qualification. Le travail complexe prend la signification d&#8217;un travail simple multiplié; une heure de travail complexe équivaut à plusieurs heures de travail simple. C&#8217;est de façon spontanée que, dans la production marchande fondée sur la propriété privée, toutes les espèces de travail complexe se ramènent à un travail simple. La grandeur de la valeur d&#8217;une marchandise est déterminée par la quantité de travail simple socialement nécessaire.</p>
<p><strong><span style="color:#c0c0c0;"> L&#8217;évolution des formes de la valeur. Le caractère de la monnaie. </span></strong><br />
</p>
<p>La valeur de la marchandise est créée par le travail dans le processus de production, mais elle ne peut se manifester que si l&#8217;on compare une marchandise à une autre dans le processus d&#8217;échange, c&#8217;est-àdire dans la valeur d&#8217;échange.<br />
</p>
<p>La forme la plus simple de la valeur est l&#8217;expression de la valeur d&#8217;une marchandise en une autre marchandise : par exemple, une hache = 20 kilogrammes de grain. Examinons cette forme.<br />
Ici la valeur de la hache est exprimée en grain. Le grain sert de moyen d&#8217;expression matériel de la valeur de la hache. La valeur de la hache ne peut s&#8217;exprimer dans la valeur d&#8217;usage du grain que parce que la production du grain, de même que la production de la hache, a nécessité du travail. Derrière<br />
l&#8217;égalité des marchandises se cache l&#8217;égalité du travail dépensé à leur production. La marchandise (dans notre cas la hache) exprimant sa valeur en une autre marchandise se présente sous la forme relative de la valeur. La marchandise (dans notre exemple le grain), dont la valeur d&#8217;usage sert de moyen d&#8217;expression de la valeur d&#8217;une autre marchandise, se présente sous une forme équivalente. Le grain est l&#8217;équivalent d&#8217;une autre marchandise : la hache. La valeur d&#8217;usage d&#8217;aine marchandise : le grain, devient ainsi la forme d&#8217;expression de la valeur d&#8217;une autre marchandise : la hache.<br />
A l&#8217;origine l&#8217;échange, qui apparaît déjà dans la société primitive, présentait un caractère fortuit et s&#8217;effectuait sous forme J&#8217;échange direct d&#8217;un produit contre un autre. A cette phase du développement des échanges correspond la forme simple ou accidentelle de la valeur :<br />
Une hache = 20 kilogrammes de grain.<br />
</p>
<p>Avec la forme simple de la valeur, la valeur de la hache ne peut être exprimée que dans la valeur d&#8217;usage d&#8217;une marchandise, le grain dans notre exemple.<br />
</p>
<p>Avec l&#8217;apparition de la première grande division sociale du travail, la séparation des tribus de pasteurs de l&#8217;ensemble des tribus, l&#8217;échange devient plus régulier. Certaines tribus, celles des éleveurs, par exemple, commencent à produire un excédent de produits d&#8217;élevage, qu&#8217;elles échangent contre les<br />
produits agricoles ou artisanaux qui leur manquent. A ce degré d&#8217;évolution des échanges correspond une forme totale ou développée de la valeur. Interviennent alors dans les échanges non plus deux, mais toute une série de marchandises :<br />
Un mouton =<br />
40 kilogrammes de grain,<br />
ou 20 mètres de toile,<br />
ou 2 haches,<br />
ou 3 grammes d&#8217;or, etc.<br />
</p>
<p>Ici la valeur de la marchandise reçoit son expression dans la valeur d&#8217;usage non pas d&#8217;une seule, mais de beaucoup de marchandises, qui jouent le rôle d&#8217;équivalent, En même temps les rapports quantitatifs, dans lesquels s&#8217;effectue l&#8217;échange, prennent un caractère plus constant. A ce degré toutefois se<br />
conserve encore l&#8217;échange direct d&#8217;une marchandise contre une autre.<br />
Avec le développement de la division sociale du travail et de la production marchande, la forme d&#8217;échange direct d&#8217;une marchandise contre une autre devient insuffisante. On voit surgir, dans le processus de l&#8217;échange, des difficultés dues à l&#8217;accroissement des contradictions de la production marchande, des contradictions entre travail privé et travail social, entre la valeur d&#8217;usage et la valeur d&#8217;une marchandise. De plus en plus souvent apparaît une situation dans laquelle, par exemple, le possesseur d&#8217;une paire de bottes a besoin d&#8217;une hache, mais la valeur d&#8217;usage des bottes fait obstacle à l&#8217;échange, car le possesseur de la hache a besoin non de bottes, mais de grain : la transaction ne peut avoir lieu entre ces deux possesseurs de marchandises. Alors le possesseur de bottes échange sa marchandise contre la marchandise qui est plus souvent demandée en échange, et que tout le monde accepte volontiers, par exemple un mouton, et il échange contre ce mouton la hache qui lui est nécessaire. Quant au possesseur de la hache, une fois qu&#8217;il a reçu en échange de sa hache un mouton, il échange celui-ci contre du grain. C&#8217;est ainsi que sont résolues les contradictions de l&#8217;échange direct.<br />
L&#8217;échange direct d&#8217;une marchandise contre une autre disparaît progressivement. De la masse des marchandises, il s&#8217;en dégage une, par exemple le bétail, contre laquelle on commence à échanger toutes les marchandises. A ce degré de développement de l&#8217;échange correspond la forme générale de la valeur :<br />
40 kilogrammes de grain,<br />
ou 20 mètres de toile,<br />
ou 2 haches,<br />
ou 3 grammes d&#8217;or, etc.<br />
= un mouton.<br />
</p>
<p>La forme générale de la valeur se caractérise par Je fait que toutes les marchandises commencent à s&#8217;échanger contre une marchandise qui joue le rôle d&#8217;équivalent général. Cependant, dans cette phase, le rôle d&#8217;équivalent général n&#8217;a pas encore été réservé à une seule marchandise. Selon les lieux, ce rôle<br />
est rempli par des marchandises différentes. Là, c&#8217;est le bétail; ici, ce sont les fourrures; ailleurs encore, c’est le sel, etc.<br />
</p>
<p>L&#8217;accroissement des forces productives, l&#8217;apparition des outils de métal et de la deuxième grande division sociale du travail, la séparation de l&#8217;artisanat et de l&#8217;agriculture, amènent le développement de la production marchande et l&#8217;élargissement du marché. L&#8217;abondance de marchandises d&#8217;espèces différentes, jouant le rôle d&#8217;équivalent général, entre en contradiction avec les besoins croissants du marché, qui exige l&#8217;adoption d&#8217;un équivalent unique.<br />
Lorsque le rôle d&#8217;équivalent général se fut attaché à une seule marchandise, on a vu surgir la forme monnaie de la valeur. Divers métaux ont joué le rôle de monnaie, mais en fin de compte, il a été réservé aux métaux précieux, l&#8217;or et l&#8217;argent. L&#8217;argent et l&#8217;or présentent au plus haut degré toutes les qualités qui rendent les métaux propres à jouer le rôle de monnaie : ils sont homogènes, divisibles, inaltérables et ont une grande valeur sous un poids et un volume faibles. C&#8217;est pourquoi la fonction de la monnaie échut aux métaux précieux, et finalement à l&#8217;or.<br />
La forme monnaie de la valeur peut être représentée de la façon suivante :<br />
40 kilogrammes de grain,<br />
ou 20 mètres de toile,<br />
ou 1 mouton,<br />
ou 2 haches, etc.<br />
= 3 grammes d&#8217;or.<br />
</p>
<p>Avec la forme monnaie, la valeur de toutes les marchandises s&#8217;exprime dans la valeur d&#8217;usage d&#8217;une seule marchandise, qui est devenue équivalent général.<br />
Ainsi la monnaie a fait son apparition à la suite d&#8217;un long processus de développement de l&#8217;échange et des formes de la valeur. Avec l&#8217;apparition de la monnaie s&#8217;effectue la division du monde des marchandises selon deux pôles : à un pôle restent les marchandises courantes; à l&#8217;autre se trouve la<br />
marchandise qui joue le rôle de monnaie. Désormais toutes les marchandises commencent à exprimer leur valeur en marchandise-monnaie. Par conséquent, la monnaie, contrairement à toutes les autres marchandises, joue le rôle d&#8217;incarnation générale de la valeur, d&#8217;équivalent général. La monnaie a la faculté de pouvoir être échangée directement contre toutes les marchandises, et ainsi de servir de moyen de satisfaction de tous les besoins des possesseurs de marchandises, tandis que toutes les autres marchandises ne sont à même de satisfaire qu&#8217;une espèce de besoins particuliers, par exemple les besoins en pain, en vêtements, etc&#8230;<br />
</p>
<p>Par conséquent, la monnaie est une marchandise qui sert d&#8217;équivalent général pour toutes les marchandises; elle incarne le travail social et exprime les rapports de production entre les producteurs de marchandises.</p>
<p><strong><span style="color:#c0c0c0;"> Les fonctions de la monnaie. </span></strong></p>
<p>A mesure que la production marchande croît, se développent les fonctions exercées par la monnaie.<br />
Dans une production marchande évoluée la monnaie sert : 1° de mesure de la valeur; 2° de moyen de circulation; 3° de moyen d&#8217;accumulation; 4° de moyen de paiement et 5° de monnaie universelle.<br />
La fonction essentielle de la monnaie est de servir de mesure de la valeur des marchandises. C&#8217;est au moyen de la monnaie que le travail privé des producteurs de marchandises trouve une expression sociale, que s&#8217;opère le contrôle spontané et la mesure de la valeur de toutes les marchandises. La<br />
valeur d&#8217;une marchandise ne peut être exprimée directement en temps de travail, puisque dans les conditions d&#8217;isolement et de dispersion des producteurs privés il est impossible de déterminer la quantité de travail que dépense non pas un producteur isolé, mais la société dans son ensemble pour la production de telle ou telle marchandise. De ce fait la valeur de la marchandise ne peut être exprimée qu&#8217;indirectement, en assimilant la marchandise à la monnaie dans le processus d&#8217;échange.<br />
Pour remplir la fonction de mesure de la valeur, la monnaie doit être elle-même une marchandise, posséder une valeur. De même que la pesanteur d&#8217;un corps ne peut être mesurée qu&#8217;à l&#8217;aide d&#8217;un corps pesant, de même la valeur d&#8217;une marchandise ne peut être mesurée qu&#8217;à l&#8217;aide d&#8217;une marchandise ayant<br />
une valeur.<br />
</p>
<p>La mesure de la valeur des marchandises par le moyen de l&#8217;or se fait avant que s&#8217;effectue l&#8217;échange d&#8217;une marchandise donnée contre de la monnaie. Pour exprimer en monnaie la valeur des marchandises, il n&#8217;est pas nécessaire d&#8217;avoir en main de l&#8217;argent liquide. En fixant un prix déterminé pour une marchandise, le possesseur exprime mentalement ou, comme le dit Marx, idéalement, la valeur de la marchandise en or.<br />
</p>
<p>Cela est possible parce que, dans la réalité vivante, il existe un rapport déterminé entre la valeur de l&#8217;or et celle d&#8217;une marchandise donnée; à la base de ce rapport se trouve le travail socialement nécessaire dépensé pour leur production.<br />
</p>
<p>La valeur d&#8217;une marchandise, exprimée en monnaie, s&#8217;appelle son prix. Le prix est l&#8217;expression monétaire de la valeur de la marchandise.<br />
Les marchandises expriment leur valeur en des quantités déterminées d&#8217;argent ou d&#8217;or. Ces quantités de marchandise-monnaie doivent être mesurées à leur tour. D&#8217;où la nécessité d&#8217;une unité de mesure de la monnaie. Cette unité est constituée par un certain poids du métal devenu monnaie.<br />
En Angleterre, par exemple, l&#8217;unité monétaire s&#8217;appelle livre sterling; autrefois, elle correspondait à une livre d&#8217;argent. Plus tard, les unités de monnaie se sont différenciées des unités de poids. Cela est dû à l&#8217;emprunt de monnaies étrangères, au passage de l&#8217;argent à l&#8217;or, et principalement à la dépréciation<br />
des pièces de monnaie par les gouvernements, qui peu à peu en diminuèrent le poids. Pour faciliter la mesure les unités monétaires se divisent en parties plus petites : le rouble en 100 kopeks ; le dollar en 100 cents ; le franc en 100 centimes, etc.<br />
</p>
<p>L&#8217;unité monétaire avec ses subdivisions sert d&#8217;étalon des prix. A ce titre, la monnaie joue un tout autre rôle qu&#8217;en tant que mesure de la valeur. Comme mesure de la valeur, la monnaie mesure la valeur des autres marchandises; en tant qu&#8217;étalon des prix, elle mesure la quantité du métal monétaire. La valeur<br />
de la marchandise-monnaie varie avec les variations de la quantité de travail socialement nécessaire à sa production. Le changement de valeur de l&#8217;or n&#8217;affecte pas sa fonction d&#8217;étalon des prix. Quelles que soient les variations de la valeur de l&#8217;or, le dollar reste toujours cent fois supérieur au cent.<br />
L&#8217;Etat peut modifier la teneur en or de l&#8217;unité monétaire, mais il ne peut changer le rapport de valeur entre l&#8217;or et les autres marchandises. Si l&#8217;Etat diminue la quantité d&#8217;or contenue dans une unité monétaire, c&#8217;est-à-dire s&#8217;il en diminue la teneur en or, le marché réagira par une hausse des prix, et la valeur de la marchandise s&#8217;exprimera comme par le passé en une quantité d&#8217;or qui correspond au travail dépensé pour la fabrication de cette marchandise. Seulement, pour exprimer maintenant la même quantité d&#8217;or, il faut un plus grand nombre d&#8217;unités monétaires qu&#8217;auparavant.<br />
Les prix des marchandises peuvent monter ou s&#8217;abaisser sous l&#8217;influence des variations que subissent la valeur des marchandises, ainsi que la valeur de l&#8217;or. La valeur de l&#8217;or, comme celle de toutes les autres marchandises, dépend de la productivité du travail. Ainsi, la découverte de l&#8217;Amérique avec ses riches ruines d&#8217;or a amené une «révolution » dans les prix. L&#8217;or en Amérique était extrait avec moins de travail qu&#8217;en Europe. L&#8217;afflux en Europe de l&#8217;or américain à meilleur marché a provoqué une hausse générale des prix.<br />
La monnaie fait fonction de moyen de circulation. L&#8217;échange des marchandises effectué avec de la monnaie s&#8217;appelle circulation des marchandises. La circulation des marchandises est étroitement liée à la circulation de la monnaie : lorsque la marchandise passe des mains du vendeur dans celles de l&#8217;acheteur, la monnaie passe des mains de l&#8217;acheteur dans celles du vendeur. La fonction de la monnaie comme moyen de circulation consiste précisément dans son rôle d&#8217;intermédiaire dans le processus de circulation des marchandises. Pour remplir cette fonction la monnaie est indispensable.<br />
A l&#8217;origine, dans l&#8217;échange des marchandises, la monnaie se présentait directement sous forme de lingots d&#8217;argent ou d&#8217;or. Cela créait certaines difficultés; nécessité de peser le métal-monnaie, de le fragmenter en petites parcelles, d&#8217;en établir le titre. Peu à peu les lingots de métal-monnaie furent remplacés par des pièces de monnaie. La pièce de monnaie est un lingot de métal de forme, de poids et de valeur déterminés, qui sert de moyen de circulation. La frappe des monnaies fut centralisée entre les mains de l&#8217;Etat.<br />
</p>
<p>Dans le processus de circulation, les monnaies s&#8217;usent et perdent une partie de leur valeur. La pratique de la circulation monétaire montre que les pièces usées peuvent faire office de moyen de circulation aussi bien que les pièces de monnaie demeurées intactes. Cela s&#8217;explique par le fait que la monnaie<br />
dans sa fonction de moyen de circulation joue un rôle passager. En règle générale, le vendeur d&#8217;une marchandise l&#8217;échange contre de la monnaie pour acheter avec cette monnaie une autre marchandise.<br />
Par conséquent, la monnaie comme moyen de circulation ne doit pas avoir obligatoirement une valeur<br />
propre.<br />
</p>
<p>Constatant la circulation des pièces de monnaie usées, les gouvernements se sont mis sciemment à déprécier les pièces de monnaie, à en diminuer le poids, à abaisser le titre du métal-monnaie, sans changer la valeur nominale de la pièce de monnaie, c&#8217;est-à-dire la quantité d&#8217;unités monétaires marquées sur les pièces. Les pièces de monnaie devenaient de plus en plus des symboles de valeur, des signes monétaires. Leur valeur réelle est de beaucoup inférieure à leur valeur nominale.<br />
Le dédoublement de la marchandise en marchandise et en monnaie marque le développement des contradictions de la production marchande. Lors de l&#8217;échange direct d&#8217;une marchandise contre une autre, chaque transaction présente un caractère isolé, la vente est inséparable de l&#8217;achat. Tout autre est l&#8217;échange effectué par l&#8217;intermédiaire de la monnaie, c&#8217;est-à-dire la circulation des marchandises. Ici, l&#8217;échange suppose une multitude de liens entre producteurs et un entrelacement constant de leurs transactions. Il offre la possibilité de séparer la vente et l&#8217;achat. Le producteur peut vendre sa marchandise et garder pour un temps la monnaie qu&#8217;il a retirée de cette vente. Lorsque beaucoup de producteurs vendent sans acheter, il peut se produire un arrêt dans l&#8217;écoulement des marchandises. Ainsi, déjà dans la circulation simple des marchandises se trouve impliquée la possibilité des crises. Mais pour que les crises deviennent inévitables, il faut une série de conditions qui n&#8217;apparaissent qu&#8217;avec le passage au mode de production capitaliste.<br />
</p>
<p>La monnaie fait fonction de moyen d&#8217;accumulation ou de moyen de thésaurisation. La monnaie devient trésor dans les cas où elle est retirée de la circulation. Comme on peut toujours convertir la monnaie en n&#8217;importe quelle marchandise, elle est le représentant universel de la richesse. On peut la<br />
garder en n&#8217;importe quelle quantité. Les producteurs accumulent de la monnaie, par exemple pour l&#8217;achat de moyens de production ou à titre d&#8217;épargne. Le pouvoir de la monnaie grandit avec le développement de la production marchande. C&#8217;est ce qui engendre la passion de l&#8217;épargne de la monnaie, la passion de la thésaurisation. Seule la monnaie non dépréciée peut exercer la fonction de thésaurisation : les pièces d&#8217;or et d&#8217;argent, les lingots d&#8217;or et d&#8217;argent, ainsi que les objets en or et en argent.<br />
</p>
<p>Quand ce sont les pièces d&#8217;or ou d&#8217;argent qui servent de monnaie, leur quantité s&#8217;adapte spontanément aux besoins de la circulation des marchandises. En cas de diminution de la production des marchandises et de réduction du commerce, une partie des pièces d&#8217;or est retirée de la circulation et est thésaurisée. Par contre, quand la production s&#8217;élargit et que le commerce s&#8217;accroît, ces pièces de monnaie rentrent de nouveau dans la circulation.<br />
</p>
<p>La monnaie exerce la fonction de moyen de paiement. En tant que moyen de paiement elle intervient dans les cas où l&#8217;achat et la vente de la marchandise se font à crédit, c&#8217;est-à-dire quand le paiement est différé. Dans l&#8217;achat à crédit, la remise de la marchandise des mains du vendeur dans celles de<br />
l&#8217;acheteur se fait sans paiement immédiat de la marchandise achetée. A l&#8217;échéance du paiement de la marchandise, l&#8217;acheteur verse la monnaie au vendeur pour la marchandise dont la livraison a déjà été effectuée auparavant. La monnaie sert aussi de moyen de paiement quand elle sert à acquitter les impôts, la rente foncière, etc.<br />
</p>
<p>La fonction de la monnaie comme moyen de paiement reflète le développement des contradictions de la production marchande. Les liaisons entre les divers producteurs s&#8217;étendent, leur interdépendance s&#8217;accroît.<br />
L&#8217;acheteur devient débiteur, le vendeur se transforme en créancier. Lorsque beaucoup de possesseurs de marchandises achètent à crédit, le défaut de paiement de traites à leur échéance, par l&#8217;un ou plusieurs des débiteurs, peut se répercuter sur toute la chaîne des obligations de paiement et provoquer la faillite d&#8217;un certain nombre de possesseurs de marchandises, liés les uns aux autres par des rapports de crédit. C&#8217;est ainsi que la possibilité des crises, impliquée déjà dans la fonction de la monnaie comme moyen de circulation, s&#8217;accentue.<br />
L&#8217;analyse des fonctions exercées par la monnaie comme moyen de circulation et comme moyen de paiement permet d&#8217;établir la loi déterminant la quantité de monnaie nécessaire à la circulation des marchandises.<br />
</p>
<p>Les marchandises se vendent et s&#8217;achètent en beaucoup d&#8217;endroits simultanément. La quantité de monnaie nécessaire a la circulation à une période donnée dépend tout d&#8217;abord de la somme des prix des marchandises en circulation; cette somme dépend à son tour de la quantité de marchandises et du prix de chaque marchandise prise à part. En outre, il faut tenir compte de la vitesse avec laquelle la monnaie circule. Quand la monnaie circule plus vite, il en faut moins pour la circulation, et inversement.<br />
</p>
<p>Si, par exemple, pendant une période donnée, mettons un an, il se vend pour un milliard de dollars de marchandises, et si chaque dollar effectue en moyenne cinq rotations, il faudra 200 millions de dollars pour la circulation de toute la masse des marchandises.<br />
Grâce au crédit que les producteurs s&#8217;accordent les uns aux autres, le besoin de monnaie diminue de la somme des prix des marchandises vendues à crédit, ainsi que des créances réciproques qui s&#8217;annulent au jour de l&#8217;échéance. L&#8217;argent liquide n&#8217;est nécessaire que pour acquitter les dettes, dont le remboursement est venu à échéance.<br />
</p>
<p>Ainsi donc, la loi de la circulation monétaire est la suivante : la quantité de monnaie nécessaire à la circulation des marchandises doit égaler la somme des prix de toutes les marchandises, divisée par la moyenne des rotations des unités monétaires de même nom. De la somme des prix de toutes les<br />
marchandises, il faut déduire la somme des prix des marchandises vendues à crédit, les sommes mutuellement remboursables et y ajouter les sommes dont le remboursement est venu à échéance.<br />
</p>
<p>Cette loi a une portée générale pour toutes les formations sociales où il y a production et circulation marchandes.</p>
<p>Enfin la monnaie joue le rôle de monnaie universelle dans le trafic entre les pays. Le rôle de monnaie universelle ne peut être joué par des pièces de monnaie dévalorisées ou par du papier-monnaie. Sur le marché mondial, la monnaie perd la forme de pièces de monnaie et se présente sous son aspect primitif de lingots de métal précieux. Sur le marché mondial dans les transactions entre les pays, l&#8217;or est le moyen d&#8217;achat universel, dans le règlement des marchandises importées d&#8217;un pays dans un autre; il est le moyen de paiement universel dans l&#8217;amortissement des dettes internationales, dans le paiement des intérêts des emprunts extérieurs et des autres obligations; il est l&#8217;incarnation de la richesse sociale dans les transferts de richesse sous forme monétaire d&#8217;un pays dans un autre, par exemple dans les cas d&#8217;exportation de capitaux en monnaie, destinés à des placements dans des banques étrangères ou à des octrois de prêts ainsi que dans les impositions de contributions par un pays vainqueur à un pays vaincu, etc.<br />
</p>
<p>Le développement des fonctions exercées par la monnaie exprime le progrès de la production marchande et de ses contradictions. La monnaie dans les formations sociales fondées sur l&#8217;exploitation de l&#8217;homme par l&#8217;homme a une nature de classe : elle est un moyen d&#8217;accaparer le travail d&#8217;autrui. Elle<br />
a joué ce rôle dans les sociétés esclavagiste et féodale. Nous verrons par la suite que c&#8217;est dans la société capitaliste que la monnaie sert au plus haut degré d&#8217;instrument d&#8217;exploitation des travailleurs.</p>
<p><strong><span style="color:#c0c0c0;"> L&#8217;or et le papier-monnaie. </span></strong><br />
</p>
<p>Quand la production marchande est développée, on emploie souvent pour les achats et les paiements, au lieu de pièces d&#8217;or, le papier-monnaie qui les remplace. L&#8217;émission du papier-monnaie a été engendrée par la pratique de la circulation des pièces usées et dépréciées, qui devenaient des symboles<br />
d&#8217;or, des signes monétaires.<br />
</p>
<p>Le papier-monnaie consiste en signes monétaires émis par l&#8217;Etat et ayant cours forcé, qui remplacent l&#8217;or dans sa fonction de moyen de circulation. Il n&#8217;a pas de valeur propre. Aussi ne peut-il pas remplir la fonction de mesure de la valeur des marchandises. Quelle que soit la quantité de papier-monnaie émis, elle ne représente que la valeur de la quantité d&#8217;or, nécessaire pour assurer les échanges. Le papier-monnaie n&#8217;est pas échangeable avec l&#8217;or.<br />
</p>
<p>Si le papier-monnaie est émis proportionnellement à la quantité d&#8217;or nécessaire à la circulation, son pouvoir d&#8217;achat, c&#8217;est-à-dire la quantité de marchandises qu&#8217;il permet d&#8217;acheter, coïncide avec le pouvoir d&#8217;achat de la monnaie d&#8217;or. Mais l&#8217;Etat émet généralement le papier-monnaie pour couvrir ses<br />
dépenses, notamment pendant les guerres, les crises et autres bouleversements, sans tenir compte des besoins de la circulation des marchandises. Lorsque la production et la circulation des marchandises se contractent, ou qu&#8217;on émet une quantité excessive de papier-monnaie, celle-ci excède la quantité d&#8217;or nécessaire aux échanges. Admettons que l&#8217;on ait émis deux fois plus de monnaie qu&#8217;il n&#8217;est nécessaire.<br />
En ce cas, chaque unité de papier-monnaie (dollar, mark, franc, etc.) représentera une quantité d&#8217;or deux fois moindre, c&#8217;est-à-dire que le papier-monnaie sera déprécié de moitié.<br />
</p>
<p>Les premiers essais d&#8217;émission de papier-monnaie ont eu lieu en Chine dès le XIIe siècle; du papier-monnaie fut émis en Amérique en 1690, en France, en 1716; l&#8217;Angleterre a procédé aux émissions de papier-monnaie pendant les guerres de Napoléon. En Russie, le papier-monnaie a été émis pour la première fois sous le règne de Catherine II.<br />
</p>
<p>L&#8217;émission excessive de papier-monnaie, qui entraîne sa dépréciation et qui est utilisée par les classes régnantes pour faire retomber les dépenses de l&#8217;Etat sur le dos des masses laborieuses et en renforcer l&#8217;exploitation, porte le nom d&#8217;inflation. Celle-ci, en provoquant la hausse des prix des produits, affecte<br />
surtout les travailleurs, car le salaire des ouvriers et des employés reste en retard sur la montée des prix. L&#8217;inflation profite aux capitalistes et aux propriétaires fonciers, surtout par suite de l&#8217;abaissement du salaire réel des ouvriers de l&#8217;industrie et de l&#8217;agriculture. L&#8217;inflation favorise les capitalistes et les<br />
propriétaires terriens qui exportent leurs marchandises à l&#8217;étranger. Par suite de la chute du salaire réel et de la diminution des dépenses de production qui en résulte, il devient possible de concurrencer avec succès les capitalistes et les propriétaires terriens étrangers et d&#8217;accroître 1&#8242;écoulement de ses propres<br />
marchandises.</p>
<p><strong><span style="color:#c0c0c0;"> La loi de la valeur est la loi économique de la production marchande. </span></strong><br />
</p>
<p>Dans l&#8217;économie marchande fondée sur la propriété privée, les marchandises sont fabriquées par des producteurs privés, isolés. Entre les producteurs de marchandises règnent la concurrence et la lutte.<br />
Chacun s&#8217;efforce d&#8217;évincer l&#8217;autre, de maintenir et d&#8217;élargir ses positions sur le marché. La production se fait sans aucun plan d&#8217;ensemble. Chacun produit pour son compte, indépendamment des autres, nul ne connaît quel besoin les marchandises qu&#8217;il produit doivent satisfaire ni le nombre des autres<br />
producteurs qui travaillent à la fabrication de la même marchandise, ni s&#8217;il pourra vendre sa marchandise au marché et si sa dépense de travail sera dédommagée. Avec le développement de la production marchande, le pouvoir du marché sur le producteur se renforce de plus en plus.<br />
Cela veut dire que dans la production marchande fondée sur la propriété privée des moyens de production agit la loi économique de la concurrence et de l&#8217;anarchie de la production. Cette loi exprime le caractère spontané de la production et de l&#8217;échange, la lutte entre les producteurs privés pour des conditions plus avantageuses de la production et de la vente des marchandises.<br />
Dans les conditions de l&#8217;anarchie de la production, qui règne dans l&#8217;économie marchande fondée sur la propriété privée, c&#8217;est la loi de la valeur agissant par la concurrence du marché, qui joue le rôle de régulateur spontané de la production.<br />
</p>
<p>La loi de la valeur est la loi économique de la production des marchandises, d&#8217;après laquelle l&#8217;échange des marchandises s&#8217;opère conformément à la quantité de travail socialement nécessaire à leur production.<br />
</p>
<p>Spontanément la loi de la valeur règle, par le mécanisme des prix, la répartition du travail social et des moyens de production entre les diverses branches de l&#8217;économie marchande. Sous l&#8217;influence des fluctuations qui se produisent dans le rapport de l&#8217;offre et de la demande, les prix des marchandises<br />
s&#8217;écartent sans cesse de leur valeur (au-dessus ou en dessous de celle-ci). Ces écarts ne sont pas le résultat de quelque déficience de la loi de la valeur; au contraire, c&#8217;est le seul moyen pour cette loi de se réaliser. Dans une société où la production est détenue par des propriétaires privés qui travaillent à<br />
l&#8217;aveuglette, seules les fluctuations spontanées des prix sur le marché font connaître aux producteurs quels sont les produits qui sont en excédent ou qui manquent par rapport à la demande solvable de la population. Seules les fluctuations spontanées des prix autour de la valeur obligent les producteurs à<br />
élargir ou à réduire la production de telle ou telle marchandise. Sous l&#8217;influence de la variation des prix, les producteurs se tournent vers les branches plus avantageuses, où les prix des marchandises sont supérieurs à leur valeur, et ils se retirent de celles où les prix des marchandises sont inférieurs à leur valeur.<br />
</p>
<p>L&#8217;action de la loi de la valeur conditionne le développement des forces productives de l&#8217;économie marchande. Comme on le sait, la grandeur de la valeur d&#8217;une marchandise est déterminée par le travail socialement nécessaire. Les producteurs qui appliquent pour la première fois une technique plus avancée, produisent leurs marchandises avec des dépenses inférieures aux dépenses socialement nécessaires; ils les vendent cependant à des prix correspondant au travail socialement nécessaire. Ce faisant, ils reçoivent un surplus de monnaie et s&#8217;enrichissent. Cela incite les autres producteurs à moderniser leurs entreprises au point de vue technique. C&#8217;est ainsi qu&#8217;à la suite d&#8217;actions disséminées de producteurs isolés, qui ne songent qu&#8217;à leur profit personnel, la technique progresse, les forces productives de la société se développent.<br />
</p>
<p>La concurrence et l&#8217;anarchie de la production font que la répartition du travail et des moyens de production entre les différentes branches, et le développement des forces productives dans l&#8217;économie marchande, sont réalisés au prix de grosses pertes de travail social et aboutissent à une aggravation constante des contradictions de cette économie.<br />
</p>
<p>Dans le cadre de la production marchande fondée sur la propriété privée, l&#8217;action de la loi de la valeur conduit à la naissance et au développement des rapports capitalistes. Les variations spontanées des prix du marché autour de la valeur, les écarts des dépenses individuelles de travail par rapport au<br />
travail socialement nécessaire qui détermine la grandeur de la valeur de la marchandise, accentuent l&#8217;inégalité économique et la lutte entre les<br />
producteurs. La concurrence provoque la ruine et la disparition de certains producteurs qui deviennent des prolétaires, l&#8217;enrichissement de certains autres,<br />
qui deviennent des capitalistes. L&#8217;action de la loi de la valeur conduit ainsi à la différenciation des producteurs.<br />
</p>
<p>La petite production engendre le capitalisme et la bourgeoisie constamment, chaque jour, chaque heure, d&#8217;une manière spontanée et dans de vastes proportions. (V. LENINE : La Maladie infantile du communisme (le gauchisme), p. 8, Editions Sociales, 1953.)</p>
<p><strong><span style="color:#c0c0c0;"> Le caractère fétiche de la marchandise. </span></strong><br />
</p>
<p>Dans le cadre de la production marchande fondée sur la propriété privée des moyens de production, le lien social qui existe entre les hommes dans le processus de production ne se manifeste que par l&#8217;échange des objets-marchandises. Le sort des producteurs se trouve étroitement lié à celui des objetsmarchandises qu&#8217;ils ont créés. Les prix des marchandises varient sans cesse indépendamment de la volonté et de la conscience des hommes, cependant que le niveau des prix est souvent une question de vie et de mort pour les producteurs.<br />
</p>
<p>Les rapports des choses masquent les rapports sociaux entre les hommes. Ainsi, la valeur de la marchandise exprime le rapport social entre producteurs, toutefois elle apparaît comme une propriété aussi naturelle de la marchandise que, par exemple, sa couleur ou son poids.<br />
C&#8217;est seulement un rapport social déterminé des hommes entre eux qui revêt ici pour eux la forme fantastique d&#8217;un rapport des choses entre elles. (K. MARX : Le Capital, livre I, t. I, p. 85.)<br />
Ainsi, dans l&#8217;économie marchande fondée sur la propriété privée, les rapports de production entre les hommes se présentent inévitablement comme des rapports entre objets-marchandises. C&#8217;est dans cette matérialisation des rapports de production que réside justement le caractère fétiche [La<br />
matérialisation des rapports de production, inhérente à la production des marchandises, porte le nom de « fétichisme marchand » par analogie avec le fétichisme religieux qui consiste dans la déification par les hommes primitif» des objets qu'ils avaient eux-mêmes créés.] propre à la production des marchandises.<br />
</p>
<p>Le fétichisme de la marchandise se manifeste de façon particulièrement éclatante dans la monnaie. La monnaie dans l&#8217;économie marchande est une force énorme qui confère un pouvoir sur les hommes.<br />
Tout s&#8217;achète avec de la monnaie. On a l&#8217;impression que cette faculté de tout acheter est la propriété naturelle de l’or, alors que, en réalité, elle résulte de rapports sociaux déterminés.<br />
</p>
<p>Le fétichisme de la marchandise a des racines profondes dans la production marchande, où le travail du producteur se manifeste directement comme travail privé, et où son caractère social n&#8217;apparaît que dans l&#8217;échange des marchandises. C&#8217;est seulement avec l&#8217;abolition de la propriété privée des moyens de<br />
production que disparaît le caractère fétiche de la marchandise.</p>
<p><strong><span style="color:#c0c0c0;"> RÉSUMÉ</span></strong><br />
</p>
<p>1. La production marchande simple des artisans et des paysans est à l&#8217;origine du capitalisme. Elle diffère de la production capitaliste en ce qu&#8217;elle repose sur le travail individuel du producteur.<br />
Elle a en même temps une base analogue à la production capitaliste, puisqu&#8217;elle est fondée sur la propriété privée des moyens de production. Sous le régime capitaliste, quand, tout comme les produits du travail, la force de travail devient aussi marchandise, la production marchande prend un caractère prédominant, universel.<br />
</p>
<p>2. La marchandise est un objet produit en vue de rechange. Elle constitue d&#8217;une part une valeur d&#8217;usage, d&#8217;autre part une valeur proprement dite. Le travail qui crée la marchandise possède un double caractère. Le travail concret est celui que l&#8217;on dépense sous une forme déterminée; il crée la valeur d&#8217;usage de la marchandise. Le travail abstrait est une dépense de force humaine de travail en général; il crée la valeur de la marchandise.<br />
</p>
<p>3. La valeur est le travail social — matérialisé dans la marchandise — des producteurs. La valeur est une catégorie historique propre uniquement à l&#8217;économie marchande. La grandeur de la valeur d&#8217;une marchandise est déterminée par le travail socialement nécessaire à sa production. La contradiction de la production marchande simple réside en ce que le travail des producteurs, qui est directement leur affaire privée, revêt en même temps un caractère social.<br />
</p>
<p>4. Le développement des contradictions dans la production marchande fait que, de la masse des marchandises, il s en dégage spontanément une, qui devient monnaie. La monnaie est une marchandise qui joue le rôle d&#8217;équivalent général. La monnaie exerce les fonctions suivantes : 1° mesure de la valeur; 2° moyen de circulation; 3° moyen d&#8217;accumulation; 4° moyen de paiement et 5°monnaie universelle.<br />
</p>
<p>5. Avec le développement de la circulation monétaire apparaît le papier-monnaie. Celui-ci, n&#8217;ayant pas de valeur propre, est le signe de la monnaie métallique qu&#8217;il remplace comme moyen de circulation. L&#8217;émission excessive de papier-monnaie, qui en provoque la dépréciation (inflation),<br />
conduit à l&#8217;abaissement du niveau de vie des travailleurs.<br />
</p>
<p>6. Dans l&#8217;économie marchande fondée sur la propriété privée des moyens de production, la loi de la valeur est le régulateur spontané de la répartition du travail social entre les branches de la production. L&#8217;action de la loi de la valeur détermine la différenciation des petits producteurs et le développement des rapports capitalistes.<br />
</span></span></h4>
<p>.</p>
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<title><![CDATA[Morality vs. Material Interests - Myths of Our Time]]></title>
<link>http://dprogram.net/2009/11/14/morality-vs-material-interests-myths-of-our-time/</link>
<pubDate>Sat, 14 Nov 2009 09:36:02 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>sakerfa</dc:creator>
<guid>http://dprogram.net/2009/11/14/morality-vs-material-interests-myths-of-our-time/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[(PaulCraigRoberts) &#8211; It is conventional wisdom that it was the draft that ended the Vietnam wa]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[(PaulCraigRoberts) &#8211; It is conventional wisdom that it was the draft that ended the Vietnam wa]]></content:encoded>
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<title><![CDATA[Die eine Weltregierung NWO - New World Order 14.04.2009]]></title>
<link>http://wahrheitskrieg.wordpress.com/2009/11/13/die-eine-weltregierung-nwo-new-world-order-14-04-2009/</link>
<pubDate>Fri, 13 Nov 2009 06:33:42 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>wahrheitskrieg</dc:creator>
<guid>http://wahrheitskrieg.wordpress.com/2009/11/13/die-eine-weltregierung-nwo-new-world-order-14-04-2009/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Jetzt ganz offiziell&#8230; Die von der globalen Elite angeleierte Weltkrise wird als Vorwand für ei]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p><span>Jetzt ganz offiziell&#8230; Die von der globalen Elite angeleierte Weltkrise wird als Vorwand für eine Weltregierung verwendet. Vor ein paar Monaten war das noch eine Verschwörunstheorie&#8230; Jetzt im öffentlich rechtlichen Fernsehen&#8230;</p>
<p><object width="425" height="254"><param name="movie" value="http://www.dailymotion.com/swf/x96l12"></param><param name="allowfullscreen" value="true"></param><embed src="http://www.dailymotion.com/swf/x96l12" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" width="425" height="334" allowfullscreen="true"></embed></object></p>
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<title><![CDATA[Baudrillard's Four Logics of the Object]]></title>
<link>http://seansturm.wordpress.com/2009/11/13/baudrillards-four-logics-of-the-object/</link>
<pubDate>Fri, 13 Nov 2009 06:33:07 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>Sean Kohingarara Sturm</dc:creator>
<guid>http://seansturm.wordpress.com/2009/11/13/baudrillards-four-logics-of-the-object/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[(Here I work with the wiki on Jean Baudrillard . . .) In his early books, such as The System of Obje]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>(Here I work with the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard">wiki</a> on Jean Baudrillard . . .)</p>
<p>In his early books, such as <em>The System of Objects</em> (1968), <em>The Consumer Society</em> (1970), and, especially, <em>For a Critique of the Political Economy of the Sign</em> (trans. Charles Levin [1972; Telos, 1981]), Baudrillard focusses on consumerism—and how different kinds of objects are consumed in different ways. As against Marx, he argues that <em>consumption</em>, rather than production, is the main drive in capitalist society. He also rejects Marx&#8217;s naive concept of &#8220;use value&#8221;: that <em>uses</em> answer <em>needs</em> in a straightforward way. He argues that needs are <em>constructed</em> rather than innate—and that all consumption is fetishistic because of the social significance of commodities (&#8220;commodity fetishism&#8221;). Objects always &#8221;say something&#8221; about their users.</p>
<p>Thus, the &#8220;ideological genesis of needs&#8221;<span style="font-size:small;"> </span>precedes the production of goods to meet those needs (<em><em>For a Critique . . .</em><span style="font-style:normal;"> 63)</span></em>. (The implication is that whoever owns the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Means_of_production">means of consumption</a> [<em>Konsummittel</em>] controls the factory. This is all commonsensical for us, but his taxonomy is more useful . . .)</p>
<p>According to <em><a href="http://books.google.co.nz/books?id=JFyhqsaataQC&#38;lpg=PA66&#38;dq=Baudrillard%20logics%20consumption&#38;pg=PA66#v=onepage&#38;q=&#38;f=false">For a Critique</a></em>, there are four ways an object can acquire &#8220;value,&#8221; i.e., four logics of signification (66):</p>
<p><img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-883" title="A Logic of Signification" src="http://seansturm.wordpress.com/files/2009/11/a-logic-of-signification.jpg" alt="A Logic of Signification" width="466" height="320" /></p>
<p>(We could replace that grammatocentric device, the pen, with a metagrammatic one, the cellphone, which is much more often to hand presently.)</p>
<ol>
<li>the <em>functional</em> value of an object: its utility as an <em>instrument</em> (= the logic of practical operations). <em>A pen writes.</em></li>
<li>the <em>exchange</em> value of an object: its market value as a <em>commodity</em> (= the logic of equivalence). <em>One pen may be worth three pencils.</em></li>
<li>the <em>symbolic</em> value of an object: its value a subject assigns to an object in relation to another subject, i.e., as a <em>gift</em> (= the logic of ambivalence). <em>A pen might symbolize a student&#8217;s graduation.</em></li>
<li>the <em>sign</em> value of an object: its value within a system of objects as a sign of <em>status</em> (= the logic of difference). <em>A particular pen may, whilst having no functional benefit, signify prestige relative to another pen.</em></li>
</ol>
<p>He argues that the first two values are disrupted by the third and, particularly, the fourth.</p>
<p>(I&#8217;d correlate these logics with phenomenology, political economy, structuralism and poststructuralism. Commensensical again—but what of the hand at the end of the pen/phone? The hermeneut, avatar of Thoth/Theuth?)</p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-889" title="MurEg1888_084_a" src="http://seansturm.wordpress.com/files/2009/11/mureg1888_084_a.jpg" alt="MurEg1888_084_a" width="265" height="535" /></p>
<p style="text-align:center;">
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<title><![CDATA[Atilio A. Boron: Imperio &amp; Imperialismo (Descargar Libro)]]></title>
<link>http://lahistoriadeldia.wordpress.com/2009/11/12/atilio-a-boron-imperio-imperialismo-descargar-libro/</link>
<pubDate>Fri, 13 Nov 2009 00:25:01 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>La historia del dia</dc:creator>
<guid>http://lahistoriadeldia.wordpress.com/2009/11/12/atilio-a-boron-imperio-imperialismo-descargar-libro/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Imperio &amp; Imperialismo &#8211; Una lectura crítica de Michael Hardt y Antonio Negri Atilio A. Bo]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[Imperio &amp; Imperialismo &#8211; Una lectura crítica de Michael Hardt y Antonio Negri Atilio A. Bo]]></content:encoded>
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<title><![CDATA[issue 9 of the commune]]></title>
<link>http://thecommune.wordpress.com/2009/11/12/issue-9-of-the-commune/</link>
<pubDate>Thu, 12 Nov 2009 11:45:33 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>internationalcommunist</dc:creator>
<guid>http://thecommune.wordpress.com/2009/11/12/issue-9-of-the-commune/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[The November issue of our monthly paper The Commune is now available. Click the image below to see t]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>The November issue of our monthly paper The Commune is now available. Click the image below to see the <a href="http://thecommune.wordpress.com/files/2009/11/thecommune9.pdf">PDF</a>, or see articles as they are posted online in the list below.</p>
<p><a href="http://thecommune.wordpress.com/files/2009/11/thecommune9.pdf"><img class="aligncenter size-medium wp-image-3922" title="issue9cover" src="http://thecommune.wordpress.com/files/2009/11/issue9cover.jpg?w=212" alt="issue9cover" width="212" height="300" /></a></p>
<p>To purchase a printed copy for £1 + 50p postage, use the <a href="https://www.paypal.com/cgi-bin/webscr?cmd=_s-xclick&#38;hosted_button_id=6654057">‘donate’ feature here</a>. You can also subscribe (£12 a year UK/£16 EU/£20 international) or order 5 copies a month to sell (£4) <a href="http://thecommune.wordpress.com/magazine/subscribe-to-the-commune/">online here</a>. If you want to pay by cheque, contact uncaptiveminds@gmail.com.</p>
<p><a href="http://thecommune.wordpress.com/2009/11/12/are-we-ready-for-a-winter-of-discontent/">are we ready for a winter of discontent?</a> &#8211; by Sheila Cohen</p>
<p><a href="http://thecommune.wordpress.com/2009/11/07/post-strikes-suspended-this-deal-is-no-deal/">post strike: this is no deal</a> &#8211; by Joe Thorne</p>
<p><a href="http://thecommune.wordpress.com/2009/11/11/london-underground-deadlock-over-pay/">underground pay deadlock</a> &#8211; by Vaughan Thomas</p>
<p><a href="http://thecommune.wordpress.com/2009/11/14/what-is-the-union-bureaucracy/">what is the union bureaucracy?</a> &#8211; by Alberto Durango</p>
<p><a href="http://thecommune.wordpress.com/2009/11/15/occupation-and-state-building-in-the-new-afghanistan/">occupation and state building in the new afghanistan</a> &#8211; by Emma Gallwey</p>
<p><a href="http://thecommune.wordpress.com/2009/11/13/mixed-reactions-to-cwu-royal-mail-deal/">mixed reactions to cwu-royal mail deal</a> &#8211; interview with a communist postman</p>
<p><a href="http://thecommune.wordpress.com/2009/11/05/post-strike-solidarity-strong-amongst-manchester-students/">manchester students build solidarity with post workers</a> &#8211; by Mark Harrison</p>
<p><a href="http://thecommune.wordpress.com/2009/11/04/scotland-the-ruling-class-division-over-defending-the-british-union/">honduras: democracy has not been restored</a> &#8211; by Socialismo o Barbarie</p>
<p><a href="http://thecommune.wordpress.com/2009/11/01/interview-with-migrant-cleaners-reps-involved-in-4200-strong-paris-strike-movement/">month long strike in france: &#8216;papers for all!&#8217;</a> &#8211; interview with Seni cleaners and piece from Où va la CGT?</p>
<p><a href="http://thecommune.wordpress.com/category/former-eastern-bloc/">communism twenty years after the berlin wall fell</a> &#8211; interviews with eastern european activists</p>
<p><a href="http://thecommune.wordpress.com/2009/11/04/scotland-the-ruling-class-division-over-defending-the-british-union/">scottish ruling class: division over union</a> &#8211; by Allan Armstrong</p>
<p><a href="http://thecommune.wordpress.com/2009/11/09/obituary-of-chris-harman/">obituary of chris harman</a> &#8211; by Andy Wilson</p>
<p><a href="http://thecommune.wordpress.com/2009/11/02/interview-with-austrian-student-occupation-activist/">university occupations in austria</a> &#8211; interview with vienna student activist</p>
<p><a href="http://thecommune.wordpress.com/2009/10/23/question-time-did-the-straw-man-really-slay-the-griffin/">question time row: did the straw man really slay the griffin?</a> &#8211; by Adam Ford</p>
<p><a href="http://thecommune.wordpress.com/2009/11/13/communist-recomposition-and-workers-representation/">communist recomposition and workers&#8217; representation</a> &#8211; by Chris Ford</p>
<p><a href="http://thecommune.wordpress.com/2009/11/08/full-and-democratic-debate-but-when/">&#8216;full and open debate&#8217; on post-no2eu project: ok, when? </a>- by David Broder</p>
<p><a href="http://thecommune.wordpress.com/2009/11/14/building-from-below-the-ideas-of-paulo-freire/">building from below: the work of paulo freire</a> &#8211; by Dave Spencer</p>
<p><a href="http://thecommune.wordpress.com/2009/11/05/the-global-commune-edinburgh-january-16th/">the global commune, january 16th</a></p>
<p><a href="http://thecommune.wordpress.com/events">activities of the commune around britain</a></p>
<p><a href="http://thecommune.wordpress.com/files/2009/11/issue9cover.jpg"></a></p>
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<title><![CDATA[Conspicuous Consumption]]></title>
<link>http://exileonthegenesee.wordpress.com/2009/11/12/conspicuous-consumption/</link>
<pubDate>Thu, 12 Nov 2009 07:38:01 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>exileonthegenesee</dc:creator>
<guid>http://exileonthegenesee.wordpress.com/2009/11/12/conspicuous-consumption/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Thorstein Veblen was an American public intellectual, an extinct category of human being in an era o]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>Thorstein Veblen was an American public intellectual, an extinct category of human being in an era of discourse that has surpassed even professional wrestling in its goofy boorishness: it would be comic were it not so toxic to a truly open society. Thoughtful conservatives such as Ambrose Bierce or H.L. Mencken once penned reams of brilliant and incisive material that is unimaginable from today&#8217;s mendacious chattering class. Imagine Mencken on Fox News&#8230;</p>
<p>Veblen, a liberal of his time, cast an even more jaundiced eye upon the class structure of the Gilded Age in his most famous book, <u>The Theory of the Leisure Class</u>.  I am currently reading Penguin&#8217;s <a href="http://www.penguin.co.uk/static/cs/uk/0/minisites/greatideas/index.html">Great Ideas Series&#8217;</a> publication of a chapter from this book under the title <u>Conspicuous Consumption</u>.  This book manages to combine the quality of the academic tract with a barely-suppressed rage that bubbles to the surface from time to time, such as Veblen&#8217;s take on the desirability of dogs from the perspective of the Ruling Classes:</p>
<blockquote><p>
The dog has advantages in the way of uselessness as well as in special gifts of temperament. He is often spoken of, in an<br />
eminent sense, as the friend of man, and his intelligence and<br />
fidelity are praised. The meaning of this is that the dog is<br />
man&#8217;s servant and that he has the gift of an unquestioning<br />
subservience and a slave&#8217;s quickness in guessing his master&#8217;s<br />
mood. Coupled with these traits, which fit him well for the<br />
relation of status &#8212; and which must for the present purpose be set down as serviceable traits &#8212; the dog has some<br />
characteristics which are of a more equivocal aesthetic value. He is the filthiest of the domestic animals in his person and the nastiest in his habits. For this he makes up is a servile, fawning attitude towards his master, and a readiness to inflict damage and discomfort on all else.
</p></blockquote>
<p>His feelings towards dogs aside, Veblen&#8217;s attack on society under Capitalism has been argued to be more thoroughgoing than even Marx&#8217;s: Marx viewed Capitalism as an improvement upon Feudalism, Veblen seems to see it as rotten from bottom to top, and his view is backed up by a keen intellect, though his gaudy Victorian style may be a bit offputting to some. </p>
<p>Not a Marxist himself, Veblen took on Marx and his followers in several essays and shows himself to be a far more careful and appreciative reader of Marx than most critics(not to mention followers&#8230;) even to this day, primarily because Veblen understood the primary importance of Hegel in Marx&#8217;s critique of Capital and ways in which Marx&#8217;s later(though pre-Soviet) followers parted ways with both Marx and Hegel in adopting a form of post-Darwinian mechanistic view of economy, not to mention<em> realpolitik</em>.</p>
<p>The current American tendency towards rabid anti-intellectualism  makes it seem unlikely that we will produce thinkers and writers who might guide us out of the seemingly endless punchup between a narrow range of public thought almost meaninglessly labelled &#8220;Liberal&#8221; and &#8220;Conservative&#8221;, but writers such as Veblen, Bierce, William James, Emerson and a host of others from the past provide hope and guideposts for a possible resurgence of what seems  oxymoronic: American Intellectualism. </p>
<p>Many of Thorstein Veblen&#8217;s writings are available at the <a href="http://socserv.mcmaster.ca/econ/ugcm/3ll3/veblen/">Veblen Archive</a> at McMaster University</p>
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<title><![CDATA[Capitalisme vs Communisme, en peinture...]]></title>
<link>http://minarchiste.wordpress.com/2009/11/11/capitalisme-vs-communisme-en-peinture/</link>
<pubDate>Thu, 12 Nov 2009 02:14:15 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>minarchiste</dc:creator>
<guid>http://minarchiste.wordpress.com/2009/11/11/capitalisme-vs-communisme-en-peinture/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Vous ne me verrez pas souvent traiter d&#8217;art sur ce blogue (je l&#8217;avais pourtant fait ici)]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>Vous ne me verrez pas souvent traiter d&#8217;art sur ce blogue (je l&#8217;avais pourtant fait <a href="http://minarchiste.wordpress.com/2009/10/28/la-guerre-et-linflation/" target="_blank">ici</a>), mais j&#8217;ai découvert une oeuvre fascinante d&#8217;un point de vue idéologique. Il s&#8217;agit d&#8217;une fresque murale de l&#8217;artiste Mexicain <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diego_Rivera" target="_blank">Diego Rivera </a>peinte en 1933-34 et intitulée &#8220;<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man,_Controller_of_the_Universe" target="_blank"><em>Man, controller of the universe</em></a>&#8220;.</p>
<p>La commande a été passée par Nelson Rockefeller, lui-même un amateur des fresques de Rivera qui sont reconnues mondialement, pour décorer le hall du RCA Building de New-York. Étant un communiste aguerri, Rivera a tenté d&#8217;utiliser son oeuvre pour passer un message à son client, mais lorsqu&#8217;un portrait de Lénine a commencé à émerger de la fresque, Rockefeller a payé l&#8217;artiste ($21,000) et a détruit l&#8217;oeuvre. Une énorme controverse s&#8217;en est suivie. Rivera scandait à la radio que si un millionnaire se payait la Chapelle Sixtine, cela ne lui donnait pas le droit de détruire l&#8217;oeuvre de Michelange qui s&#8217;y trouve, puisqu&#8217;elle appartient au patrimoine de l&#8217;humanité.</p>
<p>Peu de temps après, le gouvernement Mexicain a permi à Rivera de reproduire son oeuvre sur un mur du <a title="Palacio de Bellas Artes" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palacio_de_Bellas_Artes">Palacio de Bellas Artes</a> de Mexico City (voir image plus bas, cliquez dessus pour une meilleure résolution).</p>
<p>Tout d&#8217;abord, on aperçoit au centre le travailleur, le héro du marxisme, qui maîtrise la technologie et contrôle son univers grâce à la science. Sur le côté gauche, Rivera dresse un portrait négatif du capitalisme, qu&#8217;il oppose à une vision positive du communisme sur la droite (évidemment, du point de vue du travailleur, le capitalisme est à droite et le communisme à gauche!).</p>
<p>En haut à gauche, on aperçoit une armée terrifiante et intimidante, munie de masques à gaz et d&#8217;armes destructrices, alors qu&#8217;à droite, l&#8217;armée est au service du peuple.</p>
<p>Ensuite, on voit à gauche une statue faisant référence à Dieu et à la religion, jetant un regard menaçant sur le monde, laissant entendre que le capitalisme est pro-religieux. À droite, côté communiste, la statue n&#8217;a pas de tête (Rivera était d&#8217;ailleurs un athée). Est-ce que le capitalisme et la religion vont nécessairement ensemble? Est-ce que les communistes sont athées? C&#8217;est ridicule.</p>
<p>En bas à gauche, on aperçoit Darwin, en référence à la théorie du <a href="http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darwinisme_social" target="_blank">darwinisme social</a>, souvent utilisée par les communistes pour critiquer le capitalisme. Comme si le capitalisme prônait la loi de la jungle, où le plus fort survit et le plus faible crève. C&#8217;est ridicule puisque le capitalisme ne sous-entend pas d&#8217;agression, mais bien la coopération libre entre les individus de la société pour améliorer leur sort. L&#8217;économie n&#8217;est pas un &#8220;jeu à somme nulle&#8221;. Tout le monde peut gagner en faisant des échanges. La compétition est là pour nous rappeler que les ressources sont limitées et pour nous forcer à bien évaluer nos préférences.</p>
<p>Devant Darwin, on peut voir une classe de jeunes de différentes nationalités qui se font endoctriner à l&#8217;idéologie capitaliste. En haut d&#8217;eux, on voit une manifestation à New-York où des policiers battent les manifestants à coups de matraques. Or, la répression a été beaucoup plus utilisée dans les sociétés communistes que dans les sociétés libres, tout comme l&#8217;endoctrinement et la désinformation.</p>
<p>En bas à droite, on peut voir l&#8217;interaction entre les travailleurs et les hommes politiques (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trotsky" target="_blank">Trotsky</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engels" target="_blank">Engels</a> et <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marx" target="_blank">Marx</a>), pour laisser entendre que le communisme donnait le pouvoir aux travailleurs. C&#8217;est en fait le contraire qui prévaut: le communisme ne permet pas aux travailleurs de bénéficier à leur guise du fruit de leur labeur. Dans un régime communisme, les travailleurs sont les esclaves du régime. À côté d&#8217;eux, des femmes vêtue de blanc qui semblent émancipées (les femmes sont-elles plus &#8220;libérées&#8221; dans un régime communiste?).</p>
<p>À gauche de ces femmes, on voit la fameuse image de Lénine, qui tient la main d&#8217;un travailleur, d&#8217;un soldat et d&#8217;un esclave noir, entouré de gens du peuple. À l&#8217;opposé, au centre-gauche, on voit des &#8220;bourgeois&#8221; qui se la &#8220;coule douce&#8221; en buvant des cocktails, en fumant et en jouant au bridge, pendant que les travailleurs au chômage manifestent à l&#8217;extérieur, attaqués par la police. On peut y apercevoir un portrait de Rockefeller lui-même. Le peintre voulait aussi montrer la décadence du capitalisme et la lutte des classes qui y prévaut; comparativement au communisme où tout le monde est égal et uni.</p>
<p>En somme une vision tout à fait utopique du communisme et plutôt caricaturale à l&#8217;égard du capitalisme. Cette façon de voir les choses tenait peut-être bien la route en 1933, mais l&#8217;histoire a par la suite donné tort à cette idéologie. Le militarisme, la répression, le culte de l&#8217;élite du pouvoir, la corruption, l&#8217;endoctrinement et le non-respect des libertés se sont avérées davantage reliées au communisme qu&#8217;au capitalisme.</p>
<p>Ça me fait penser, je viens d&#8217;écouter la partie 1 des Grands Reportages (RDI) sur le mur de Berlin.</p>
<p>En juin 1953, les travailleurs de la constructions ont fait une grève pour protester contre les conditions de travail déplorables (des horaires exigeants, un rythme de production effreiné). Cela n&#8217;était évidemment pas permis par le régime communiste de la RDA.</p>
<p><strong>Leur slogan était: &#8220;Nous ne sommes pas des esclaves!&#8221;</strong></p>
<p>L&#8217;armée est intervenue et a tiré dans le tas, tuant quelques centaines de manifestants. Vive le capitalisme!</p>
<p>Note: Cette oeuvre fait partie des <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Around_the_World_in_80_Treasures" target="_blank">80 trésors de l&#8217;humanité </a>de Dan Cruickshank, une série de documentaires de la BBC qui est diffusé présentement au Canal Évasion.</p>
<p><a href="http://personal.lse.ac.uk/Morett/Various.images/man%20at%20the%20crossroads%20rivera.jpg" target="_blank"><img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-622" title="Diego_riviera" src="http://minarchiste.wordpress.com/files/2009/11/diego_riviera.jpg" alt="Diego_riviera" width="500" height="208" /></a></p>
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<title><![CDATA[Embracing paleostructuralism]]></title>
<link>http://leitourgeia.wordpress.com/2009/11/11/embracing-paleostructuralism/</link>
<pubDate>Thu, 12 Nov 2009 01:18:18 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>Richard Barrett</dc:creator>
<guid>http://leitourgeia.wordpress.com/2009/11/11/embracing-paleostructuralism/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[It is late afternoon on Wednesday, and I have somehow managed to accomplish everything I needed to a]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>It is late afternoon on Wednesday, and I have somehow managed to accomplish everything I needed to accomplish by this time. On Friday, this seemed like a goal that was unattainable, so I am reasonably pleased.</p>
<p>Somebody mentioned to me this last Saturday, &#8220;I occasionally read your rants against post-structuralism.&#8221; It had not been explicitly discussed in class that Foucault and company actually constitute an &#8220;-ism&#8221;, so I&#8217;m sure I was a deer in the headlights for a second while I figured out what my friend meant. Flesh of My Flesh has been explicitly exposed to more theory than I have, so I&#8217;ve been hearing about the supposed difference between signifier and signified for some time, but again, that this movement had a name was new information for me. A couple of things clicked once I understood the label; this is the same friend who a few years ago overheard me saying that it made no sense to me to read modern ideas of sexual equality and identity into texts for which those ideas would be anachronistic, and consequently chided me for &#8220;not believing in gender theory,&#8221; adding, &#8220;Applying theory is not &#8216;reading something into&#8217; anything. That&#8217;s just you having an ideological problem.&#8221;</p>
<p>For all I know, maybe he&#8217;s right. He&#8217;s in the English department, and maybe there&#8217;s a way these things actually make sense from the standpoint of literature. Maybe, too, this is the difference between a &#8220;scholar&#8221; and an &#8220;intellectual&#8221; &#8212; I do not give a fat, furry, flying rat&#8217;s hindquarters about <em>theory</em>. I have not entered an academic discipline because I am interested in the &#8220;isms&#8221; which seem to plague the humanities right now. (I am told that &#8220;thing theory&#8221; was rather well-represented at last week&#8217;s Byzantine Studies Association of North America conference, which makes me want to tear out my own teeth with a rusty screwdriver.) I have entered an academic discipline, because, funny and naïve and idealistic as it may sound, I am actually interested in, and even <em>like</em>, my subject of study.</p>
<p>What does that make me? A paleostructuralist? If so, then so be it. (&#8220;Paleostructuralist&#8221; sounds cooler and more dignified than &#8220;anti-post-structuralist&#8221; anyway.)</p>
<p>I still have more to write on Foucault in this space, but it&#8217;s going to have to wait a bit yet while I finish some other things. In the meantime, my most recent (and last) response paper for my &#8220;Introduction to the Professional Study of History&#8221; course starts to sketch out some of the thoughts that will show up there. Certain elements will be no surprise to those who visit here somewhat regularly, there are a couple of moments where it will be evident that I just got through watching all of Christopher Nolan&#8217;s movies in chronological order (which merits its own post), and the couple of somewhat coy suggestions that certain things should be discussed elsewhere will be developed in my final paper for this course.</p>
<p>&#8211;</p>
<p>The Safe Retreat into Omniscient Third-Person:</p>
<p>The Problem of Historicizing Oneself</p>
<p>Or</p>
<p>A Response to Kate Brown’s “A Place in Biography for Oneself”</p>
<p>(As Well as a Number of Other Bits and Pieces from the Fall 2009 H601 Course)</p>
<p>“Historians,” writes Kate Brown in her essay “A Place in Biography for Oneself,” “expose <em>other</em> people’s biographies, not their own.”<a href="#_ftn1">[1]</a> How can this be, however, when according to Marx, “[m]en make their own history” <a href="#_ftn2">[2]</a>? How, ultimately, may historians be their own agents of history while being true to their own profession? How might historians assume the first person voice in their own work, that is to say, <em>our </em>own work, or still more to the point, <em>my</em> own work – honestly?</p>
<p>To expand Marx’s quote, men make their own history, “but they do not make it just as they please; they do not make it under circumstances chosen by themselves, but under circumstances directly found, given and transmitted from the past.” Brown certainly did not choose her circumstances. She is from a small Midwestern town whose economic history could have stepped out of the pages of <em>The Marx-Engels Reader</em>; in her home town of Elgin, Illinois, as she tells it, the beginning of her life intersected with a narrative of Western expansion, labor strife, industry flight, economic redevelopment, and gentrification.<a href="#_ftn3">[3]</a> Her own retelling of the story gives significant credibility to Marx’s claim that “[t]he tradition of all the dead generations weighs like a nightmare on the brain of the living”<a href="#_ftn4">[4]</a>:</p>
<blockquote><p>From Elgin… I came to understand how closely one’s biography is linked to one’s place… I recognized the impulse to bulldoze and start over, to push on toward a brighter, cleaned-up destiny, which meant abandoning some places and people and losers of an unannounced contest.<a href="#_ftn5">[5]</a></p></blockquote>
<p>The past – that is to say, one’s history – and its relationship to location are a weight that one must learn to carry or learn to jettison. Perhaps this can be understood as an inversion of the opening line of Pat Conroy’s novel <em>The Prince of Tides</em> – rather than the <em>wound</em> being geography, the anchorage, the port of call, it is <em>geography</em>, and the confluence of circumstances that one encounters in that geography, that is the wound.</p>
<p>All well and good &#8212; but how <em>real</em> is this confluence of circumstances? How objectively may its existence be assumed? Per Benedict Anderson and his analysis of how seemingly disconnected events make up the front page of a newspaper, perhaps not much:</p>
<blockquote><p>Why are these events so juxtaposed? What connects them to each other? Not sheer caprice. Yet obviously most of them happen independently, without the actors being aware of each other or of what the others are up to. The arbitrariness of their inclusion and juxtaposition… shows that the linkage between them is imagined.<a href="#_ftn6">[6]</a></p></blockquote>
<p>What, then, is the difference between one’s life and the front page of a newspaper? Do they both represent a constructed – that is to say, not objectively real – and affected way of arranging events? For the historian, how does that construction and that affectation influence how they read history, view history, and write history? How does understanding how one’s life interacts with one’s work impact either, for better or for worse?</p>
<p>As a scholar, I have been carefully trained to avoid using the first person in my work. “Don’t <em>ever</em> say things like ‘We can see the following…’ in your research,” I remember being told in one undergraduate course. “This is not a journey ‘we’re’ going on together. It’s a research paper.” My training in languages also tends to inform how I view texts – “Read what it <em>says</em>, not what you think it means,” my first Greek instructor repeatedly told our class. My research goal, therefore, is typically to state a clear, impersonal thesis and then get the hell out of the way of my own argument, simply letting the facts and the observations speak for themselves as much as possible. If I present it as something that “I” think, then I will have fundamentally devalued and undermined my argument – why should anybody care what I think?</p>
<p>Naturally, there is far more to it than a hope to rest comfortably on objectivity. Why should anybody care what <em>I </em>think, indeed. I’m a nobody, a college dropout from nowhere, a first generation college graduate at the age of 29, having taken eleven years to finish a four year degree (a B. Mus. at that, not a liberal arts degree), who then, even with good grades and test scores, still had to do three years of coursework as an unmatriculated student before there was any way to be competitive for graduate schools, all the while hearing from a chorus of professors, “I’m more than happy to write you a letter of recommendation, but I’m not sure you’re going to be able to get there from here.” Why should anybody care what I think? Good heavens, I will need to make sure I publish under a pseudonym just to be taken at all seriously. Better yet, I should somehow indicate on my C. V. that I simply sprang forth fully-grown from the head of Zeus with my PhD already in hand.</p>
<p>But there is still more to it than that, surely. I’ve been at Indiana University in one capacity or another since 2003, somewhat ironically making it the longest I’ve ever lived anywhere. My family bounced around a lot for reasons best recounted elsewhere, and even now, they live, quite dispersed, in places I have never lived, in houses I never called home, in zip codes I never visited until they moved there. Brown can rely on her connection with the place of Elgin, Illinois as an anchor for where she is now, but I am literally from nowhere, in the sense that I have had to construct my notion of “home” from different raw materials than place and family, and I find it very difficult to relate to concepts of home that <em>do</em> center around place and family. If my family moved around for reasons having to do with the military or career development, than I might be able to legitimately claim – as a friend of mine, the son of a prominent Russian History scholar, does – to be a “citizen of the world,” to be from <em>everywhere</em>. Alas, I can claim nothing quite so romantic or interesting. Robert Frost once said that home is where, if you have to go there, they have to take you, but the places where that is even marginally true are places that have never actually been a part of my life. If Brown is correct that one’s biography is closely linked to place, than I truly am the Nowhere Man – so again, why should anybody care what I think?</p>
<p>But, of course, there is still more to it than that.</p>
<p>“In my quest to explore the human condition,” writes Brown, “I have hidden behind my subjects, using them as a scrim to project my own sentiments and feelings.”<a href="#_ftn7">[7]</a> There is an undeniable connection between who somebody <em>is</em> and what interests them; for her own part, Brown describes this connection by saying, “I believe that I was able to see stories that had not yet taken shape for other historians because of the sensitivities I acquired in my past.”<a href="#_ftn8">[8]</a> My advisor, Professor Edward Watts, is potentially an example; he is an academic raised in a family of academics. His parents are both academics, and his sister is an academic. What was the subject of his dissertation? Rhetorical education in Late Antique Alexandria and Athens. As I told him after I read the book, it is difficult to not see his work as having an aspect of meta-commentary on the academic life. He chuckled and said, “You wouldn’t necessarily be wrong.”</p>
<p>Beyond that example, I saw with my own eyes how the personal connection between historian and subject might manifest with my colleagues during orientation and initial class meetings:</p>
<p>“Hi, I’m Roberto Arroyo, and I’m interested in Latin American history.”</p>
<p>“My name is Isaac Rosenbaum, and I do Holocaust history.”</p>
<p>“I’m Lakshmi Patel, and I’m studying the history of relations between India and Pakistan.”</p>
<p>The Late Antique Byzantinist whose last name is not “Ioannides” or “Sotiriou” is left at something of a disadvantage in such company. Yes, there is, in fact, a personal reason that connects me to my subject of inquiry, a personal reason that should not be too hard to surmise for the careful observer (but one that is best discussed in another setting), but a personal reason that is nonetheless internal, abstract, and conceptual rather than immediately and concretely constructed by place or family – that is to say, by the circumstances which I did not choose. I have personal stakes that led me to my areas of interest, but because they are of my own choosing I must be circumspect in how I speak in terms of “I”, “we”, and “our” if I am to be seen as having sufficient distance from my subject to be credible as a scholar. Edward Said and Dipesh Chakrabarty appear adamant that cultures and societies must define themselves, that to not allow such self-definition is cultural imperialism,<a href="#_ftn9">[9]</a> and yet this mandate of courtesy with respect to communal identity does not appear to extend to those who have embraced certain communities voluntarily.</p>
<p>Of course, I also have the problem that I am not interested in my subject from a critical point of view; I find it anachronistic to explicitly read whatever my own political beliefs and values may be – and, for today’s purposes, we may broadly describe them as uncomfortably conservative as Russell Kirk defined the word, which according to contemporary definitions probably makes me liberal – into my historical subject, but per Elizabeth Blackmar as quoted by Ted Steinberg, we historians are not supposed to evade the question of politics.<a href="#_ftn10">[10]</a> According to Steinberg, the role of the historian in the present day is evidently to explore “the history of oppression,”<a href="#_ftn11">[11]</a> and this attitude is one I see largely borne out in my cohort. Nonetheless, the reality is that <em>such a history is not the history of the Late Antique Eastern Roman Empire I have any desire to write</em>. I have better things to do than study something with the express purpose of tearing it down. I fundamentally believe it is possible to be more productive and constructive – but do I only believe that because of my other beliefs in the first place? Is my choice of the word “constructive” itself telling, possibly signifying that I would rather buy into the social constructions that historians are supposed to <em>de</em>construct? The 3<sup>rd</sup> person voice of objectivity keeps me from having to mess with such potentially treacherous questions.</p>
<p>If men make their own history, but not under circumstances they choose for themselves, and history is supposed to be the history of oppression, then must a historian writing their own history engage in self-hatred by definition? Brown does not appear to write a piece of self-hatred, but it is clear that she is uncomfortable with the implications of her own essay – “My palms sweat as I write this… The intimacy of the first person takes down borders between author and subject, borders that are considered by many to be healthy in a profession situated between the social sciences and the humanities.”<a href="#_ftn12">[12]</a> Chakrabarty suggests one possible way out, explicitly referencing autobiography and history as two separate and distinct genres<a href="#_ftn13">[13]</a> – so not only is autobiography, the history of oneself, not history, but history isn’t a <em>discipline</em> anyway, it’s a <em>genre</em>. But here is the rub – if history is a genre somewhere “between” the social sciences and the humanities, and a historian writing their own history must find a methodologically honest way to not engage themselves at the level of self-hatred, which then in fact moves the work into a different genre altogether, then the historian can <em>never</em> actually engage in a real work of self-historicization that is not self-mutilatory.</p>
<p>At any rate, can we claim objectivity anyway by avoiding biographical detail or the first person? In a post-structuralist world where we must assume a fundamental disconnect between signifier and signified, does it really matter to begin with? Or is a research paper written in the omniscient third person much like Bruno Latour’s depiction of the laboratory<a href="#_ftn14">[14]</a> or Bonnie Smith’s history seminar and archive<a href="#_ftn15">[15]</a> – a socially constructed, that is to say <em>false</em>, space of knowledge-based privilege that can assert authority it does not actually have simply because a particular group of people have become convinced that it does?</p>
<p>I do not have answers to my own questions, posed at the outset of this musing. I am not certain where to go with them. My inclination is to say the various circumstances of my own life may appear as arbitrary as Anderson insists the front page of the newspaper actually is, but by virtue of the very fact that I in fact experience those circumstances in chronological order, I nonetheless perceive them as my own narrative. My inclination is to say that I cannot be forced to historicize my own life as a history of oppression any more than I can legally be required to self-incriminate in a court of law. My inclination is to say that nonetheless, I am better off keeping my arguments in the third person and keeping my “self” out of the voice of my own work, that regardless of what <em>I</em> think, we all know what a coffee table will feel like if we rap it with our knuckles, and that in saying that I am not privileging people who have hands or who do not have nerve damage. My inclination is to say that there <em>must</em> be a world outside of our own minds, and that there <em>must</em> be a way we can discuss it, even if our own minds tell us how we’re going to organize our perceptions of that world. Are these words and ideas too strong, too dangerous, too naïve, too uninformed? I do not know, but I do not know where else to start.</p>
<p>And perhaps that is why it is good I work in a period many people find irrelevant. It keeps me from becoming a danger to myself or to others.</p>
<p><span style="text-decoration:underline;">Works Cited</span></p>
<p>Anderson, Benedict. <em>Imagined Communities</em>. 2 ed. New York: Verso, 2006.</p>
<p>Blackmar, Elizabeth. &#8220;Contemplating the Force of Nature.&#8221; <em>Radical Historians Newsletter </em>no. 70 (1994).</p>
<p>Brown, Kate. &#8220;A Place in Biography for Oneself.&#8221; <em>American Historical Review </em>no. 114 (2009): 596-605.</p>
<p>Chakrabarty, Dipesh. &#8220;Postcoloniality and the Artifice of History: Who Speaks For &#8220;Indian&#8221; Pasts?&#8221; <em>Representations </em>no. 37 (1992): 1-26.</p>
<p>Latour, Bruno. &#8220;Give Me a Laboratory and I Will Raise the World.&#8221; In <em>Science Observed: Perpsectives on the Social Study of Science</em>, edited by Karin Knorr-Cetina and Michael Mulkay, 141-70. London: Sage, 1983.</p>
<p>Marx, Karl. &#8220;The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte.&#8221; In <em>The Marx-Engels Reader</em>, edited by Robert C. Tucker, 594-617. New York: W. W. Norton and Company, Inc., 1978.</p>
<p>Said, Edward. <em>Orientalism</em>. New York: Vintage Books, 1994. Reprint, 2003.</p>
<p>Smith, Bonnie. &#8220;Gender and the Practices of Scientific History: The Seminar and Archival Research.&#8221; <em>American Historical Review </em>100, no. 4 (1998): 1150-76.</p>
<p>Steinberg, Ted. &#8220;Down to Earth: Nature, Agency, and Power in History.&#8221; <em>American Historical Review </em>107, no. 3 (2002): 798-820.</p>
<hr size="1" /><a href="#_ftnref">[1]</a> Kate Brown, &#8220;A Place in Biography for Oneself,&#8221; <em>American Historical Review</em>, no. 114 (2009), 603.</p>
<p><a href="#_ftnref">[2]</a> Karl Marx, &#8220;The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte,&#8221; in <em>The Marx-Engels Reader</em>, ed. Robert C. Tucker (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, Inc., 1978), 595.</p>
<p><a href="#_ftnref">[3]</a> Brown, &#8220;A Place in Biography for Oneself,&#8221; 600-3.</p>
<p><a href="#_ftnref">[4]</a> Marx, &#8220;The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte,&#8221; 595.</p>
<p><a href="#_ftnref">[5]</a> Brown, &#8220;A Place in Biography for Oneself,&#8221; 604.</p>
<p><a href="#_ftnref">[6]</a> Benedict Anderson, <em>Imagined Communities</em>, 2 ed. (New York: Verso, 2006), 33.</p>
<p><a href="#_ftnref">[7]</a> Brown, &#8220;A Place in Biography for Oneself,&#8221; 603.</p>
<p><a href="#_ftnref">[8]</a> Ibid., 605.</p>
<p><a href="#_ftnref">[9]</a> Edward Said, <em>Orientalism</em> (New York: Vintage Books, 1994; reprint, 2003). Dipesh Chakrabarty, &#8220;Postcoloniality and the Artifice of History: Who Speaks For &#8220;Indian&#8221; Pasts?,&#8221; <em>Representations</em>, no. 37 (1992).</p>
<p><a href="#_ftnref">[10]</a> Elizabeth Blackmar, &#8220;Contemplating the Force of Nature,&#8221; <em>Radical Historians Newsletter</em>, no. 70 (1994)., 4. Quoted in Ted Steinberg, &#8220;Down to Earth: Nature, Agency, and Power in History,&#8221; <em>American Historical Review</em> 107, no. 3 (2002), 804.</p>
<p><a href="#_ftnref">[11]</a> Steinberg, &#8220;Down to Earth: Nature, Agency, and Power in History,&#8221; 802.</p>
<p><a href="#_ftnref">[12]</a> Brown, &#8220;A Place in Biography for Oneself,&#8221; 603.</p>
<p><a href="#_ftnref">[13]</a> Chakrabarty, &#8220;Postcoloniality and the Artifice of History: Who Speaks For &#8220;Indian&#8221; Pasts?&#8221;, 8.</p>
<p><a href="#_ftnref">[14]</a> Bruno Latour, &#8220;Give Me a Laboratory and I Will Raise the World,&#8221; in <em>Science Observed: Perpsectives on the Social Study of Science</em>, ed. Karin Knorr-Cetina and Michael Mulkay (London: Sage, 1983). Accessed online at <a href="http://www.stanford.edu/dept/HPS/Latour_GiveMeALab.html">http://www.stanford.edu/dept/HPS/Latour_GiveMeALab.html</a> on 9 November 2009.</p>
<p><a href="#_ftnref">[15]</a> Bonnie Smith, &#8220;Gender and the Practices of Scientific History: The Seminar and Archival Research,&#8221; <em>American Historical Review</em> 100, no. 4 (1998).</p>
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<title><![CDATA[LLegamos tan alto...]]></title>
<link>http://lightsandshots.wordpress.com/2009/11/11/llegamos-tan-alto/</link>
<pubDate>Wed, 11 Nov 2009 22:11:00 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>lightsandshots</dc:creator>
<guid>http://lightsandshots.wordpress.com/2009/11/11/llegamos-tan-alto/</guid>
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<title><![CDATA[A veinte años de la caida del Muro de Berlín.]]></title>
<link>http://socialismosiglo21.wordpress.com/2009/11/10/a-veinte-anos-de-la-caida-del-muro-de-berlin/</link>
<pubDate>Tue, 10 Nov 2009 23:47:38 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>jorgehjimenez</dc:creator>
<guid>http://socialismosiglo21.wordpress.com/2009/11/10/a-veinte-anos-de-la-caida-del-muro-de-berlin/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Columna LIBERTARIOS Y LIBERTICIDAS (228). Por Rogelio Cedeño Castro. Correspondiente al martes 10 de]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>Columna<br />
LIBERTARIOS Y LIBERTICIDAS (228).<br />
Por <strong>Rogelio Cedeño Castro</strong>.<br />
Correspondiente al martes 10 de noviembre de 2009.</p>
<h1>A VEINTE AÑOS DE LA CAÍDA DEL MURO DE BERLÍN.</h1>
<p>ooooo</p>
<p>Los veinte años transcurridos desde la caída del Muro de Berlín, aquel 9 de<br />
noviembre de 1989, nos permiten tomar la distancia suficiente como para<br />
comenzar a ver, por así decirlo, con otros ojos, aquellos acontecimientos<br />
que marcaron el fin de la guerra fría, hasta entonces protagonizada por los<br />
bloques soviético y estadounidense. Dicho en otros términos, puede afirmarse<br />
que con el paso del tiempo se han podido evidenciar las consecuencias más<br />
perdurables que para las naciones del hasta entonces llamado Tercer Mundo<br />
(Le Tiers Monde según la expresión acuñada por los franceses, allá por los<br />
años cincuenta del siglo anterior), tuvieron las imágenes y sucesos de esa<br />
noche berlinesa cuando los residentes de la ciudad, de los dos lados del<br />
muro, se juntaron por primera vez, al cabo de casi treinta años, sin<br />
restricciones de ninguna especie. Aquel fue el preludio de la invasión a<br />
Panamá, por parte de las fuerzas estadounidenses, lanzada como una<br />
advertencia al electorado nicaragüense de lo que podría ocurrirle a ese país<br />
si votaba por los sandinistas, en las elecciones de febrero de 1990, tal y<br />
como lo había hecho en las elecciones de noviembre de 1984. Había concluido<br />
el mundo de la bipolaridad, dentro del cual nos habíamos acostumbrado a<br />
jugar y pasábamos a sufrir, de manera brutal, las consecuencias del<br />
unilateralismo de la nación con más vocación imperialista en la historia de<br />
nuestro planeta. Poco tiempo después el pueblo y la nación de Irak seguirían<br />
en la lista de víctimas de este cambio en el equilibrio de fuerzas a escala<br />
planetaria.</p>
<p>ooooo</p>
<p>Desde entonces, se nos han recetado una serie de fórmulas y dogmas tan<br />
rígidos e inhumanos, como de los de aquel miserable y mentiroso mundo de la<br />
guerra fría, que acababa de concluir y que fue siempre manipulado, desde<br />
Washington y Moscú, por sus aparatos propagandísticos, con una acendrada y<br />
laboriosa vocación totalitaria. Entre ellos, y casi de súbito, vino a ocupar<br />
un lugar central el arrogante final de la historia, decretado por Francis<br />
Fukuyama y otros ideólogos del occidente capitalista, junto con la sepultura<br />
definitiva de aquel fantasma del que hablaban Marx y Engels, en el<br />
Manifiesto Comunista de 1848, los que parecieron decretar que, en lo<br />
sucesivo, nuestro destino estaría signado, de manera exclusiva, por más y<br />
más capitalismo, pero sobre todo más libre mercado, debiendo resignarnos a<br />
soportar todas sus secuelas.</p>
<p>ooooo</p>
<p>Del  suicidio y la mediocridad manifiesta de aquel régimen, presuntamente<br />
comunista o socialista, de la parte oriental de los Länder o provincias que<br />
conforman la Alemania de este cambio de siglo, con todos sus resabios<br />
estalinianos y su grotesca, cuando no brutal, policía política (la stasi)<br />
que había montado un gigantesco aparato de espionaje, apenas si queda el<br />
recuerdo. Lo que nunca deberíamos olvidar es que precisamente aquel régimen<br />
de la Alemania Democrática (la RDA), viene a ser algo así como el compendio<br />
de lo que no es ni debe ser nunca llamado socialismo, al menos si ese<br />
término retiene algunos de los elementos esenciales de su razón de ser. Su<br />
burocracia usurpadora de un poder de los trabajadores que, al parecer,<br />
existió sólo nominalmente en la vallas de propaganda y en las publicaciones<br />
de ese régimen, cuando llegó la hora más crucial de su historia, lo único<br />
que supo hacer fue abrazar la ideología y las prácticas del capitalismo,<br />
dejando abandonados a su suerte a quienes conformaban su base social. Se<br />
confirmó con creces lo que algunos habíamos sospechado, desde hacía algún<br />
tiempo, acerca de lo que puede suceder cuando la que gobierna es la derecha<br />
de la izquierda.</p>
<p>ooooo</p>
<p>Después de aquel júbilo por el triunfo de de la libertad (aunque ahora<br />
sabemos con mucha más claridad que se estaban refiriéndose, de una manera<br />
casi exclusiva y obsesiva a la libertad empresarial y de mercado), algunos<br />
cayeron en la trampa de pensar que la lucha por el socialismo y la justicia<br />
social se había terminado. Muchos presuntos obispos del marxismo-leninismo,<br />
tan dogmático y alejado de la realidad como el neoliberalismo/<br />
neoconservadurismo que nos recetó el consenso de Washington, protagonizaron<br />
espectaculares conversiones religiosas. De súbito reconocieron las virtudes<br />
teologales en el mercado y se lanzaron hacia una piadosa expiación de sus<br />
pecados rojos o socialistas, dentro de lo que constituyó un nuevo<br />
alejamiento de la realidad, contra el que con gran acierto advertía el<br />
propio Carlos Marx, desde sus escritos más tempranos. La realidad<br />
latinoamericana ha venido a mostrar,  de manera terca, con el paso del<br />
tiempo, que la historia está más viva que nunca y que la hacen nuestros<br />
pueblos, en su incesante y heroica lucha cotidiana.</p>
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<title><![CDATA[Futebol dos Filósofos!]]></title>
<link>http://tailinehijaz.wordpress.com/2009/11/10/futebol-dos-filosofos/</link>
<pubDate>Tue, 10 Nov 2009 23:12:59 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>Tailine</dc:creator>
<guid>http://tailinehijaz.wordpress.com/2009/11/10/futebol-dos-filosofos/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[ohohohohohohoho! É! Achei esse vídeo no YouTube. Trata-se de um vídeo irado dos maiiiiooooresss filó]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p><strong>ohohohohohohoho</strong>! É! Achei esse vídeo no <em>YouTube. </em>Trata-se de um vídeo irado dos maiiiiooooresss filósofos de toooooda a história &#8230;.</p>
<p>&#8230; mas bem, eles estavam pensando? filosofando? conversando? argumentando? <span style="text-decoration:line-through;">estragando nossas vidas?</span> <span style="color:#ff0000;"><strong>Não!</strong> </span>É o que diz o título do <em>post</em> mesmo! <strong><span style="text-decoration:underline;">Estavam jogando futebol</span></strong>! KPOkasokOKoaskoaksopaks IoI</p>
<p>Nesta partida, a seleção da <strong>Grécia </strong>(iihaa!) disputa com o timaço aço da <strong>Alemanha</strong>. E, só para você ter uma idéia do que estou falando, dê uma olhadinha no plantel das equipes:</p>
<p>De um lado, representando o time grego, temos figurões do tipo de <strong>Sócrates</strong> (o da maiêutica LoL), <strong>PLatão </strong>(o bonitão :B), <strong>Aristóteles </strong>(um dos 1ºs machistas da história Oo), <strong>Arquimedes</strong> (Eurekaa!) e afins.</p>
<p>Doooo outro lado do campo, a <strong>Alemanha</strong> conta com craques como <strong>Kant </strong>(ughh.. <em>&#8220;leio Kant e finjo que entendo</em>&#8220;!. É só falar de <strong>Kant </strong>que me lembro disso..KOpkaoksoaks), <strong>Hegel</strong>, <strong>Heidegger</strong> (o da Hannah Arendt!), <strong>Nietzsche </strong>(do<em> &#8220;Quando <strong>Nietzsche</strong> chorou&#8221;</em> :T) e o <em>meu </em>queridinho<span style="color:#ff0000;"> <span style="color:#ff0000;"><strong><span style="color:#000000;">Karl, o Marx</span></strong></span></span><strong> </strong>^^ S2</p>
<p>O jogo é apitado por <strong><span style="text-decoration:underline;">Santo </span></strong>Agostinho e <strong><span style="text-decoration:underline;">São</span></strong> Tomás de Aquino &#8211; HMmmm! Entendi por que <strong>Nietzsche</strong> levou cartão amarelo! Hhahahahah Ele acusou <strong>Confúcio</strong>, o árbitro, de não ter livre arbítrio. E <strong>Confúcio</strong> respondeu: <em>&#8220;O seu nome vai para o livrinho!&#8221;</em> KOkaoOPkoaksoa &#8216;-&#8217;</p>
<p>Os comentaristas, sobre <strong>Hegel</strong>: <em>&#8220;Hegel﻿ afirma que o gol não valeu porque a realidade é apenas um auxiliar apriorístico da ética não naturalista.&#8221; Pff! HUihaiushauihsuia</em>!</p>
<p>Er, me empolguei! Huiahsuiahsuia Quase contei toda a história! HUnf! rs</p>
<p>AWn, o videozinho de 3 min. é<strong> legendado</strong>. Até tem dublado no <em>YouTube</em>, mas esse aqui é muito mais engraçado! ASSISTA! (a g o r a !)</p>
<p><span style='text-align:center; display: block;'><object width='425' height='350'><param name='movie' value='http://www.youtube.com/v/moWZm66J_yM&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' /><param name='allowfullscreen' value='true' /><param name='wmode' value='transparent' /><embed src='http://www.youtube.com/v/moWZm66J_yM&#038;rel=1&#038;fs=1&#038;showsearch=0&#038;hd=0' type='application/x-shockwave-flash' allowfullscreen='true' width='425' height='350' wmode='transparent'></embed></object></span></p>
<p>Cá pra nós, só faltou o <strong>Fenômeno</strong> aí para o vídeo ficar perfeito! Hihihihihihi :**</p>
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