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	<title>merleau-ponty &amp;laquo; WordPress.com Tag Feed</title>
	<link>http://en.wordpress.com/tag/merleau-ponty/</link>
	<description>Feed of posts on WordPress.com tagged "merleau-ponty"</description>
	<pubDate>Thu, 24 Dec 2009 08:56:40 +0000</pubDate>

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<title><![CDATA[Every object is the mirror of all others]]></title>
<link>http://urbansensemaking.wordpress.com/2009/12/14/every-object-is-the-mirror-of-all-others/</link>
<pubDate>Mon, 14 Dec 2009 23:23:39 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>Vica</dc:creator>
<guid>http://urbansensemaking.wordpress.com/2009/12/14/every-object-is-the-mirror-of-all-others/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[&#8220;Every object is the mirror of all others.&#8221; &#8220;I can therefore see an object in so f]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p style="text-align:justify;">&#8220;Every object is the mirror of all others.&#8221;</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">&#8220;I can therefore see an object in so far as object form a system or a world, and in so far as each one treats the others round it as spectators  of its hidden aspects and as guarantee of the permanence of those aspects.&#8221;</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">&#8220;What we have just said about the spatial perspective could equally be said about the temporal [...] : each present permanently underpins a point of time which calls for recognition from all the others.&#8221;</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">&#8220;But, once more, my human gaze never posits more than one facet of the object [...]. It can never come up against previous appearances or those presented to other people otherwise than through the intermediary of time and language.&#8221;</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#808080;"><em>Merleau-Ponty _ Phenomenology of Perception _ Routledge, 2007 _ pp. 79-80</em></span></p>
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<title><![CDATA[Reflection never holds the whole world]]></title>
<link>http://urbansensemaking.wordpress.com/2009/12/14/reflection-never-holds-the-whole-world/</link>
<pubDate>Mon, 14 Dec 2009 23:06:21 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>Vica</dc:creator>
<guid>http://urbansensemaking.wordpress.com/2009/12/14/reflection-never-holds-the-whole-world/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[&#8220;reflection never holds [...] the whole world, [...] its view is never other than partial and ]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p style="text-align:justify;">&#8220;reflection never holds [...] the whole world, [...] its view is never other than partial and of limited power.&#8221;</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">&#8220;the thinking Ego can never abolish its inherence in an individual subject, which knows all things in a particular perspective.&#8221;</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">&#8220;Reflection cannot be thorough-going, or bring a complete elucidation of its object, if it does not arrive at awareness of itself as well as of its results.&#8221;</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">&#8220;The core of philosophy [...] lies in the perpetual beginning of reflection, at the point where an individual life begins to reflect itself. &#8220;</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">&#8220;A philosophy becomes transcendental [...] by considering itself as a problem, not by postulating a knowledge rendered totally explicit, but by recognizing as the fundamental philosophic problem this presumption on reason&#8217;s part.&#8221;</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><span style="color:#808080;"><em>Merleau- Ponty _ Phenomenology of Perception_Routledge, 2007 _ p.71-73</em></span></p>
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<title><![CDATA[Stitches with Love...]]></title>
<link>http://waitingwendywong.wordpress.com/2009/12/14/stitches-with-love/</link>
<pubDate>Mon, 14 Dec 2009 07:21:57 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>waitingwendywong</dc:creator>
<guid>http://waitingwendywong.wordpress.com/2009/12/14/stitches-with-love/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Stitches with Love……, which is about seeing people who have some silly actions when they fall in lov]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p><strong><em>Stitches with Love……</em></strong><strong>,</strong> which is about seeing people who have some silly actions when they fall in love is normal. There is a slag said “Love is blind”. According to some science researches, some parts of the brain function slowly when someone fall in love. Whether the result of these researches is true or not, it is true that some people love someone blind and do some silly acts to maintain their relationships. Wong’s recent works are focusing on this concept and expressing the concept by using the manga style. Apart from using oil paints and acrylic paints on canvases, she also expresses her message by stitching the characters’ eyes in her paintings. The materials with different textures can easily generate a contrast effect between media.  She would like to address that “Even though it’s a painful act, I would do that because I can’t evade from the fact that I love him or her more then you can think of. And I don&#8217;t care what the outsider talk about.”</p>
<p>The stitching act seems to be a painful and silly action or experience, but the characters seems enjoying that. What do viewers feel? As Maurice Merleau-Ponty mentioned that “…it is our experience…of inhabiting the world by our body, of inhabiting the truth by our whole selves…”<a href="#_ftn1">[1]</a>, which teach us the perceptual presence of the world. This will affect people have different interpretation toward the same objects as the ways of inhabitation will have difference between one and other. Wong believes that viewers and artists will have different perceptions toward the same artwork since they have different individual and cultural experience.  They may have different emotional reactions since they have different experience, especially they may have total different feelings from the artist’s view.</p>
<hr size="1" /><a href="#_ftnref1">[1]</a> Maurice Merleau-Ponty and Claude Lefort, <em>The Visible and the Invisible : Followed by Working Notes</em>, Northwestern University Studies in Phenomenology &#38; Existential Philosophy. (Evanston [Ill.]: Northwestern University Press, 1968).</p>
<div class="wp-caption aligncenter" style="width: 416px"><img class=" " title="XOXOXXX 2" src="http://waitingwendywong.wordpress.com/files/2009/12/xoxoxxx2.jpg" alt="Love and Kisses" width="406" height="304" /><p class="wp-caption-text">Love and Kisses</p></div>
<div class="wp-caption aligncenter" style="width: 416px"><img class=" " title="Two Become One..." src="http://waitingwendywong.wordpress.com/files/2009/12/two-become-one.jpg" alt="Two Become One..." width="406" height="304" /><p class="wp-caption-text">Two Become One...</p></div>
<div class="wp-caption aligncenter" style="width: 416px"><img class=" " title="Together... (3)" src="http://waitingwendywong.wordpress.com/files/2009/12/together-3.jpg" alt="Together... (3)" width="406" height="304" /><p class="wp-caption-text">Together... (3)</p></div>
<div class="wp-caption aligncenter" style="width: 416px"><img title="Together... (2)" src="http://waitingwendywong.wordpress.com/files/2009/12/together-2.jpg" alt="Together... (2)" width="406" height="304" /><p class="wp-caption-text">Together... (2)</p></div>
<p>The above art pieces are now showing in the Postgraduate Degree Show of Sydney College of the Arts this year.</p>
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<title><![CDATA[Félix Ravaisson's Of Habit]]></title>
<link>http://buymeout.wordpress.com/2009/12/06/felix-ravaissons-of-habit/</link>
<pubDate>Sun, 06 Dec 2009 18:33:08 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>Michael</dc:creator>
<guid>http://buymeout.wordpress.com/2009/12/06/felix-ravaissons-of-habit/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[I just read Ravaisson&#8217;s Of Habit. It is really a great little book. There is so much more in t]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[I just read Ravaisson&#8217;s Of Habit. It is really a great little book. There is so much more in t]]></content:encoded>
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<title><![CDATA[Thoughts on Merleau-Ponty: An Introduction]]></title>
<link>http://shadowgraphs.wordpress.com/2009/12/05/thoughts-on-merleau-ponty-an-introduction/</link>
<pubDate>Sat, 05 Dec 2009 09:11:48 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>shadowgraphs</dc:creator>
<guid>http://shadowgraphs.wordpress.com/2009/12/05/thoughts-on-merleau-ponty-an-introduction/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[The experience of reading Hofstadter and writing the last post on him galvanized my philosophical re]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>The experience of reading Hofstadter and writing the last post on him galvanized my philosophical reading habits in a pretty significant way. Since I was now quite interested in the problem of the &#8220;self&#8221; not existing and in the interface between cognitive science and philosophy, I decided that I would next tackle <em>The Phenomenology of Perception</em> by Maurice Merleau-Ponty; based on what I knew of Merleau-Ponty, those questions seemed right up his ally. I finished the whole book in a week, rabidly underlining every interesting passage I found. This was something of an intense experience, since it is very much a Big, Fat Philosophy Book in the tradition of <em>Critique of Pure Reason,</em> <em>The Phenomenology of Spirit</em>, <em>Being and Time</em>, and so forth&#8230; maybe a bit less technical and abstract, since Merleau-Ponty includes a good share of psychological case studies and personal anecdotes, but still, that was a <em>lot</em> of reading to digest in one week&#8217;s time. I enjoyed the heck out of it, though. Honestly, I don&#8217;t think I could have chosen a better candidate for first Big, Fat Philosophy Book to have read cover-to-cover; Merleau-Ponty&#8217;s style, method, and conclusions are more or less the exact sort of thing I look for in a philosophical author.</p>
<p>That said, I feel as though I missed a lot by reading <em>The Phenomenology of Perception</em> so quickly, so I&#8217;m going to start a series of posts which will summarize, or at least comment on, every chapter in the book, in an attempt to consolidate my knowledge and understanding of it and to get to a point where I know more or less the whole &#8220;lay of the land,&#8221; so to speak. Also, Merleau-Ponty addresses the far majority of philosophical &#8220;problems&#8221; and offers some pretty novel ways of thinking about them, so it seems like it would be a good idea to have a written index of his positions &#8211; that way, I&#8217;ll have something of a jumping-off point in future philosophical papers and discussions.</p>
<p>This was going to nicely segue into an exposition on a quote from his preface, but i&#8217;m getting tired now so that will unfortunately have to wait for tomorrow. Oh well. Expect exciting things, I guess&#8230;?</p>
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<title><![CDATA[Physical interactions with virtual objects, virtual objects in a physical world]]></title>
<link>http://hypertiling.wordpress.com/2009/11/24/physical-interactions-with-virtual-objects-virtual-objects-in-a-physical-world/</link>
<pubDate>Tue, 24 Nov 2009 15:44:26 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>Fabio Cunctator</dc:creator>
<guid>http://hypertiling.wordpress.com/2009/11/24/physical-interactions-with-virtual-objects-virtual-objects-in-a-physical-world/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Pranav Mistry. This guy is a genius. If you ask me, any future ontology must confront itself with th]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[Pranav Mistry. This guy is a genius. If you ask me, any future ontology must confront itself with th]]></content:encoded>
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<title><![CDATA[Being through photos]]></title>
<link>http://comediadarte.wordpress.com/2009/11/23/being-through-photos/</link>
<pubDate>Mon, 23 Nov 2009 17:49:17 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>pirittarosa</dc:creator>
<guid>http://comediadarte.wordpress.com/2009/11/23/being-through-photos/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[“Photograph destroys formation of time, leaving unnaturally open the moments time would normally clo]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p><a href="http://comediadarte.wordpress.com/files/2009/11/img_2267.jpg"><img class="aligncenter size-full wp-image-193" title="img_2267" src="http://comediadarte.wordpress.com/files/2009/11/img_2267.jpg" alt="" width="500" height="467" /></a></p>
<p>“Photograph destroys formation of time, leaving unnaturally open the moments time would normally close”</p>
<p>Merleau-Ponty in his article L’oeil et L’espirit, translated freely from Finnish text.</p>
<p>Merleau-Ponty&#8217;s critic towards photographing is very much based on the context of his time and the way this medium was then in use. He saw a photo mere as a copy of some certain moment in time, not as a creative method to explain the time as an artist, according to him, does. And most of all his criticism point out the fact that a camera with its possibility to record surrounding world is not natural part of human body and Merleau-Ponty views on being, is namely being within in a human body. I found part of these ideas lately in Finnish periodical journal, (Synteesi 1/2009; 27-28) which approached this dilemma though Christian Mayern’s Other Town, not mine a series of photos collected in Ulaanbaatar adjusting a camera, which was connected on stray dog to shoot a photo in every minute. Mayern’s idea was if I have understood it correctly to try to study being in completely strange place both in strange town but then also through different form of life, a dog.</p>
<p>For me a photographing is a personal way to explore the world around me and perhaps the world inside me by following and observing the way my own photographs are constructed, so this article caught my interest. How well I can truly get into my own world using the camera? Using a copy of some target, while the actual being happens in me, though my eyes till my mind? There seem to be very strong reason to suggest these two are perhaps simultaneous but not the same. When I later look at the photo, I don’t actually see the place as in the photo but I see the image stored in my mind, in much more complex form than that photo can show it. In a painting an artist shows his interpretation of his used motif, but what does a photo show? Is a photo merely a still picture, with no interpretation of the artists only a sterile image captured by anonymous technical device.</p>
<p>Am I in my photos? I find it difficult to say no I am not or that my being or body has nothing to do with them. There are definitely photos, taken by me even if nobody would ever recognize to be mine, not able to see me behind the camera so to speak.  This has been my mission during my own photo trainings, not to learn to use my camera but namely learn to speak with the photos &#8211; by choosing the motifs, adjusting the camera, choosing the ankles, and then processing the image. The camera is after all just material which can hold the specifications I want it to hold just as different paints, canvases, brushes, finishing substances are needed to hold the specifications an artist wants them to hold. But Merleau-Ponty&#8217;s critic is very good and worth pondering further. I am going to London to spent my Yule tide there photographing. I think I&#8217;ll take the instruction to M-P&#8217;s philosophy with me and see if I&#8217;ll be able to better study ontological aspects he shows using my camera.</p>
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<title><![CDATA[Phenomenology Research Center::release]]></title>
<link>http://distropia.wordpress.com/2009/11/20/phenomenology-research-centerrelease/</link>
<pubDate>Fri, 20 Nov 2009 19:16:53 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>fabriciopontin</dc:creator>
<guid>http://distropia.wordpress.com/2009/11/20/phenomenology-research-centerrelease/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Well, some of you read us in English, some of you in Portuguese. So I&#8217;ll go for the cosmopolit]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>Well, some of you read us in English, some of you in Portuguese. So I&#8217;ll go for the cosmopolitan option and write this post in both languages.</p>
<p>I just want to let everyone know about the Phenomenology Research Center at Southern Illinois University. This is, I quote:</p>
<blockquote><p>[a] collaborative community of learning that hosts national and international graduate students, post-doctoral students, as well as junior and senior scholars. Located in Carbondale, Illinois at <a href="http://philosophy.siuc.edu/" target="_blank">Southern Illinois University</a>, the Center accommodates interdisciplinary perspectives, and focuses on joint research as a way of informing individual study.</p></blockquote>
<p>We are ready to receive scholars interested in researching on phenomenology, if you are interested please mail admin@phenomenologyresearchcenter.org for instructions as to how to apply and more information about the center.</p>
<p>Right now, you should get all information you need about the center at <a href="http://www.phenomenologyresearchcenter.org/" target="_blank">this website</a>. We currently have three associated researchers working in the center, under the direction of Prof. Steinbock. Two more researchers are scheduled to join us next semester. Soon, I&#8217;ll add more pictures of the center and more information regarding applications and work projects to the website.</p>
<p>&#8212;</p>
<p>Bom, vamos para o Português.</p>
<p>O centro para pesquisa em Fenomenologia acabou de ser aberto aqui na Southern Illinois University at Carbondale. Trata-se de um centro para suporte em pesquisa e investigação interdisciplinar dentro do método fenomenológico, o centro tem condições de dar suporte institucional e técnico para quem tem interesse na área. Ainda estamos trabalhando na possibilidade de oferecer bolsas próprias ao centro, mas alunos de pós graduação interessados em  passar um semestre ou um ano pesquisando fenomenologia no centro devem definitivamente mandar um email para admin@phenomenologyresearchcenter.org.</p>
<p>Considerando a atual excelência da pesquisa desenvolvida pelo professor Steinbock, principalmente relacionada com Husserl (fenomenologia generativa), Merleau-Ponty (estudos sobre o corpo e ontologia social) e Levinas (misticismo e filosofia da religião), eu realmente acredito que alunos  brasileiros interessados neste tema podem se beneficiar do contato com os demais pesquisadores no centro e o acesso privilegiado à atual pesquisa avançada pelo Prof. Steinbock. Trata-se, sem dúvida, de uma das dez melhores instituições onde fazer um estudo de curto prazo em fenomenologia, e um dos poucos centros (creio que existem três) para pesquisa nesta área nos Estados Unidos.</p>
<p>Estou desenvolvendo a página em Português e Espanhol, mas vocês já podem acessar a página do centro em inglês &#8211; totalmente funcional &#8211; <a href="http://www.phenomenologyresearchcenter.org/" target="_blank">aqui</a>.</p>
<p>Dúvidas, comentários e sugestões na caixa de comentário, ok?</p>
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<title><![CDATA[The girls]]></title>
<link>http://allisunknown.wordpress.com/2009/11/09/the-girls/</link>
<pubDate>Tue, 10 Nov 2009 01:42:44 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>allisunknown</dc:creator>
<guid>http://allisunknown.wordpress.com/2009/11/09/the-girls/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[The girls of the 1920s were little more than willow wisps; all legs, arms, and torsos, only a motion]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>The girls<br />
of the 1920s were<br />
little more than willow wisps;<br />
all legs, arms, and torsos,<br />
only a motion of limbs and<br />
pale thin embodiment.<br />
Bowlers,<br />
and short hair,<br />
flapper dresses,<br />
boys at their sides,<br />
neon, satin, sequins, and utopian<br />
Art Deco lives.</p>
<p>They were all too young to realize the horrors<br />
the technologies<br />
they invested with messianic robes,<br />
too old to hear their parents&#8217; cries.<br />
From farmsteads,<br />
they came to the big from<br />
the small, never understanding they only ever traded<br />
one enclosure for another.</p>
<p>Anyone who has tried to live in a big city &#8211;<br />
now or then &#8211;<br />
knows what I mean.</p>
<p>My limbs move in ever-narrowing<br />
circles,<br />
squeezed in on all sides by an<br />
amalgamated mass of<br />
bodies.<br />
This is my salvation and my<br />
poison.<br />
The city is my God.<br />
His angels are a host of automobiles,<br />
carrying the living dead<br />
from neighborhood to neighborhood,<br />
but anyone can see there&#8217;s no space<br />
for anyone anymore: the cities<br />
are filling up, the graveyards<br />
are filling up,<br />
Hell is filling up.</p>
<p>But I&#8217;m not different:<br />
another pretender in a city of fakes,<br />
you the flighty flapper<br />
I followed here from parts unknown,<br />
shuffling the same worn deck of cards and wishing for<br />
that lucky hand to play, thinking of<br />
the girls of the 1920s,<br />
and the cities that will be<br />
our graves.</p>
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<title><![CDATA[Lacan and some philosophers]]></title>
<link>http://buymeout.wordpress.com/2009/11/05/lacan-and-some-philosophers/</link>
<pubDate>Thu, 05 Nov 2009 06:30:27 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>Michael</dc:creator>
<guid>http://buymeout.wordpress.com/2009/11/05/lacan-and-some-philosophers/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[I&#8217;ve been sitting in on the seminar on hermeneutics that Sean is doing this semester. Besides ]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[I&#8217;ve been sitting in on the seminar on hermeneutics that Sean is doing this semester. Besides ]]></content:encoded>
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<title><![CDATA[Le temps de l'âme chez Saint Augustin]]></title>
<link>http://lacademie.wordpress.com/2009/10/26/le-temps-de-lame-chez-saint-augustin/</link>
<pubDate>Mon, 26 Oct 2009 00:00:35 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>L'Academie de Philosophie</dc:creator>
<guid>http://lacademie.wordpress.com/2009/10/26/le-temps-de-lame-chez-saint-augustin/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[L’Atelier des concepts, Par Emmanuel AVONYO, op Semaine du 26 octobre 2009 _________________________]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p style="text-align:right;">L’Atelier des concepts, Par Emmanuel AVONYO, op</p>
<h4 style="text-align:right;">Semaine du 26 octobre 2009</h4>
<p style="text-align:justify;">_______________________________________________________________________</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">L&#8217;atelier de cette semaine s&#8217;intéresse à la pensée de saint Augustin sur le temps. Elle est à situer sous le prisme de la méditation sur la condition temporelle de l’existence humaine. Qu’est-ce que le temps ? Comment le mesurer ? Voici les deux questions qui mettent Augustin en recherche dans le livre XI des <em>Confessions</em>. Pour Augustin, le temps n’a pas d’être réel. On ne le mesure qu’à son écoulement. Le temps n’a pas d’être en lui-même. Il n’existe que dans l’esprit. <strong><a class="wpGallery" href="http://lacademie.wordpress.com/2009/10/30/pensee-du-30-octobre/" target="_blank">Notre passé et notre futur <em>sont</em> au présent</a></strong>, et le présent <em>est</em> en écoulement continu.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Cette conception du temps a une lourde conséquence pour l’histoire de la philosophie : le temps sera désormais une catégorie de l’être. C’est pour cela que le philosophe Merleau-Ponty écrira que le temps n’est pas une dimension de notre savoir mais une dimension de notre être (MERLEAU-PONTY, <em>Phénoménologie de la perception</em>, Gallimard, p. 475). Cette définition très augustinienne du temps pourrait inscrire ce dernier au nombre des existentiaux en langage heideggérien. Et quelle convergence avec la temporalité chez Kant ! Le temps est un existential, parce qu&#8217;il était avec Kant une structure de l’esprit humain. Mais allons à l’essentiel de la description du temps chez Augustin. L’auteur des <em>Confessions </em>ne fera qu’accentuer le paradoxe du temps.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">
<p style="text-align:justify;">Le temps n’existe que dans la mesure où il tend à ne plus être, dans la mesure où il cesse d’être. S’il restait toujours présent, il serait l’éternité. Saint Augustin distingue ainsi temps et éternité : le temps n’est fait que de <em>« la succession d’une multitude d’instants, qui ne peuvent se dérouler simultanément… Au contraire, dans l’éternité, rien n’est successif, tout est présent, alors que le temps ne saurait être présent tout à la fois »</em><a href="#_ftn1">[1]</a>. Si cette définition est assez claire, elle ne fait qu&#8217;alimenter les interrogations. Le temps, dit saint Augustin, est fait d’instants successifs. Pour prolonger son idée, nous dirons que c’est cette successivité des instants qui rend possible l’enchaînement du présent, du passé et du futur dans le temps. Augustin affirme encore que le passé et le futur tirent leur être et leur cours de l’éternel présent qui seul est stable. Il est facile d&#8217;entrevoir une indiscrète connivence entre temps et éternité, si le présent éternel était l&#8217;éternité, et que le passé et l&#8217;avenir n&#8217;ont d&#8217;être que dans une saisie au présent. Or le présent lui aussi n&#8217;existe pas. Il n&#8217;y d&#8217;être que du présent éternel.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">L’équivocité de la position d’Augustin est remarquable à ce niveau. Si l’éternité (présent éternel) détermine le futur et le passé, le temps, conçu comme la succession du passé, du présent et de l’avenir, n’est-il pas déjà une sorte d’éternité ? Le temps humain participe-t-il vraiment de l&#8217;éternité ? Le temps (le présent) serait-il la présence de l&#8217;éternité ? Ces questions sont laissées à l’appréciation du lecteur qui est invité à se reporter aux <em>Confessions</em> afin de se faire son idée de cette possible imbrication du temps et de l’éternité par le truchement du présent éternel. Quoi qu’il en soit le temps est une existence fuyante, c’est la principale thèse d’Augustin. Le présent, pour être du temps, rejoint aussi le passé, et le futur qui n’<em>est</em> pas encore, n’aura d’<em>être</em> qu’à la condition de <em>ne plus être</em>.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Le temps existe en tant que durée instable car même le présent cesse d’être. Heidegger traduit élégamment cette idée quand il soutient que le temps appartient à la « clairière du se retirer » en apportant avec lui l’être, la présence<a href="#_ftn2">[2]</a>. Il n’y a le temps que parce que l’avenir n’est pas encore, le passé n’est plus, et le présent se contente de s’abolir dans le <em>ne-plus-être</em>. Heidegger est complètement en phase avec Saint Augustin sur ce point. Le présent est la disparition de l’avenir dans le passé, l’engloutissement de ce qui n’est pas encore dans ce qui n’est plus.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">En affirmant que le temps est fugace, Augustin est loin de nier l’existence du temps comme succession des instants. Si ni le passé, ni le présent, ni l’avenir n’étaient, il n’y aurait pas le temps, c’est-à-dire la succession instable des instants. « <em>Si rien ne passait, il n’y aurait pas du temps passé ; si rien n’arrivait, il n’y aurait pas de temps à venir ; si rien n’était, il n’y aurait pas de temps présent »</em><a href="#_ftn3">[3]</a>. Le temps passé et le temps futur <em>sont</em> à la condition de passer et d’arriver. Quant au présent, il est comme une éclaircie entre deux nuits, une lueur de présence entre deux absences, le devenir entre deux néants. Le temps présent est sous la menace de sa négation que symbolise le passé. Le paradoxe du temps s’illustre chez saint Augustin comme le paradoxe d’un présent absent, condition d’existence du temps.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">C’est alors que se pose le problème de la mesure du temps. Peut-on mesurer ce qui n’est pas, c’est-à-dire le passé et le futur ? Saint Augustin répond que seul le présent est mesurable. Réponse difficile à corroborer, si nous restons dans la logique de la première critique. Car il est tout de même curieux de soutenir que ce qui <em>n’est pas</em> toujours, ce qui n’est pas encore fini, le présent, a une longueur. Difficile de mesurer ce qui n’a pas d’étendue. Comment se passe la mesure du temps présent ? Pour Augustin, c’est le temps en train de passer que nous mesurons par la conscience que nous en prenons. Le passé et l’avenir existent parce qu’ils sont conçus par l’esprit humain.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Notre mémoire en effet ne garde que des empreintes du passé, elle ne projette que des images anciennes sur l’avenir par préméditation. De cette manière, le futur et le passé ne <em>sont</em> qu’en tant que rendus à l’existence présente par l’esprit humain qui en a gardé les traces mémorielles. Le seul temps qui soit mesurable, c’est le présent. En tant que représentation de notre esprit, mesure de la durée du mouvement et du repos, le temps demeure une distension de l’âme. S’il est vrai que la conception de la durée est variable selon les individus et selon la teneur de l’événement que l’on mesure, la mesure du temps au présent est toujours le souvenir du passé et l’attente de l’avenir par notre esprit. C&#8217;est la psychologie du temps chez Augustin.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">L’on peut noter que saint Augustin ne semble pas se démarquer largement d’Aristote. Le temps de l’âme chez Augustin est le temps que mesure notre conscience de la succession des instants. Aristote aussi avait perçu l’intellect comme la faculté de l’âme qui <em>nombre </em>le temps. Le temps psychologique augustinien mesure le mouvement (et pas le contraire), il ne dépend plus des mouvements circulaires des astres célestes. Augustin « sort » le temps de l’espace (l’homme est dans l’espace ? l’espace est-il une dimension de l’homme ?) et le loge dans le sujet humain. <a class="wpGallery" href="http://lacademie.wordpress.com/2009/10/19/le-temps/" target="_blank"><strong>Le temps cosmologique</strong> </a>est le même partout et en toute chose, il existe sans l’âme. Le temps psychologique ne veut pas confondre le temps et ce qui en est le signe (le mouvement). Il n’est qu’à la condition de cesser d’être. Il est fonction de la mesure de l’esprit humain.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">
<p style="text-align:justify;">Cette petite comparaison faite en compagnie d’Aristote, que retenir du temps chez saint Augustin ? Le passé et le futur ne <em>sont </em>jamais au présent, donc ne <em>sont </em>pas. Mieux, ils ne sont que pour l’homme. Quand au présent, il <em>est </em>de façon instable. Le présent éternel seul est stable, il s’appelle éternité. Le temps qui passe ne convoque-t-il pas l’homme vers une existence infinie, qui, elle, ne passe ni ne finit ? Le fleuve des choses temporelles nous entraîne vers des horizons d’être inconnus. Le temps s’écoule, et avec lui, l’être de l’homme.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Soulignons pour finir qu’en réfléchissant sur l’être fugace du temps, Augustin souligne que l’homme est un être qui passe, l’homme est un être en quête d’éternité, une éternité qui est enfouie dans sa mémoire. Cette anthropologie du temps a des accents théologiques indéniables. Les années de l’homme vont et viennent, contrairement à celles de Dieu. L’homme est en mal d’être, il est éphémère. Le temps comme l’homme n’auront d’être que dans leur tension vers l’Etre éternel et immuable. <a class="wpGallery" href="http://lacademie.wordpress.com/latelier-des-concepts/lontologie/" target="_blank"><strong>L’ontologie</strong></a><span class="wpGallery"><strong> </strong></span>du temps ou l’anthropologie augustinienne du temps se révèle en définitive comme une eschatologie du temps. Augustin a-t-il réussi à dépasser Aristote ? A suivre&#62;&#62;&#62; <a class="wpGallery" href="http://lacademie.wordpress.com/2009/11/09/paul-ricoeur-et-le-concept-de-temps/" target="_blank"><strong><em>La critique ricoeurienne du concept du temps chez Aristote et Augustin</em></strong></a></p>
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<p style="text-align:justify;"><a class="wp-caption" href="http://lacademie.wordpress.com/2009/10/19/le-temps/" target="_blank"><strong>&#62;&#62;&#62;LE TEMPS</strong></a></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><a class="wp-caption" href="http://lacademie.wordpress.com/2009/10/19/le-temps/" target="_blank"><strong>UN CONCEPT PARADOXAL</strong></a></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><a class="wp-caption" href="http://lacademie.wordpress.com/2009/10/19/le-temps/" target="_blank"><strong>LE TEMPS DU MONDE CHEZ ARISTOTE</strong></a></p>
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<p style="text-align:justify;"><a href="#_ftnref1">[1]</a> Saint Augustin,<em> Les Confessions</em>, Garnier-Flammarion, Paris, 1964, p.261.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><a href="#_ftnref2">[2]</a> Martin Heidegger, Questions 3 &#38; 4, Gallimard, 1976, p. 348.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><a href="#_ftnref3">[3]</a> Saint Augustin,<em> Les Confessions</em>, Garnier-Flammarion, Paris, 1964, p.261.</p>
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<title><![CDATA[Pensée du 20 octobre ]]></title>
<link>http://lacademie.wordpress.com/2009/10/20/pensee-du-20-octobre/</link>
<pubDate>Tue, 20 Oct 2009 00:02:48 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>L'Academie de Philosophie</dc:creator>
<guid>http://lacademie.wordpress.com/2009/10/20/pensee-du-20-octobre/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[« Un roman, un poème, un tableau, un morceau de musique sont des individus… C’est en ce sens que le ]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p style="text-align:justify;"><strong>« Un roman, un poème, un tableau, un morceau de musique sont des individus… C’est en ce sens que le corps est comparable à l’œuvre d’art »</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Maurice MERLEAU-PONTY, <em>Phénoménologie de la perception</em></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><em>_________________________________________________________________________</em></p>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;">GRILLE DE LECTURE<em><br />
</em></h3>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Le corps <em>signifie</em> au-delà de lui-même, comme la vision donne à voir beaucoup plus que ce qu’elle voit, comme un roman, un poème, donnent à comprendre plus que les mots, comme la création picturale et la musique disent plus que ce qui est dit. Ainsi, ce style d’être-au-monde qu’est le corps, manifeste une sorte d’imbrication de la nature et de la culture, de l’immanence et de la transcendance. Il est l’horizon de sens par lequel le monde lui-même prend sens et s’exprime tout en étant exprimé.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Ce faisant, les rapports signe-sens, expression-exprimé, sont à réinterpréter, puisque, loin de manifester leur scission, ils témoignent par cette unité existentielle qu’est le corps de leur interdépendance. L’existence charnelle n’est pas d’ordre mécanique, ni non plus du seul ressort de l’organique. Elle est prégnance de sens, ouverture, conscience corporelle et gestes symboliques. En définitive, elle repose sur cette ambiguïté, qui est en même temps condition de richesse, qui fait que l’ordre humain ne vit que d’équivocité ou de plurivocité. Le corps, en tant que style d’être-au-monde, exprime ces sens possibles et ces glissements, porte en lui et hors de lui cette équivocité. Ma chaire est de ce fait une modulation stylistique de mon incarnation, ouverture d’une différence non close sur elle-même.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Dire que le corps est comparable à l’œuvre d’art, cela ne relève pas d’une simple analogie. L’on y voit la preuve tangible de l’origine de tout style, y compris artistique. Exister, humainement s’entend, n’a de sens et de valeur que stylistique. Et, si la comparaison est justement possible, c’est en raison de l’unité vivante et originale qu’est le corps. Dire qu’un roman, un poème, un tableau, un morceau de musique sont des individus, c’est dire que ce sont des êtres où l’on ne peut distinguer l’expression de l’exprimé, ce sont des êtres dont le sens n’est accessible que par un contact direct. Ils rayonnent leur signification sans quitter leur place temporelle.</p>
<p><strong><a href="http://lacademos.ucao-uua.org/?page_id=149" target="_blank"><span style="text-decoration:underline;"><strong>Mervy Monsoleil AMADI, op</strong></span></a></strong></p>
<h3 style="text-align:justify;"><a class="wp-caption" href="http://lacademie.wordpress.com/2009/10/19/pensee-du-19-octobre/" target="_blank"><strong></strong><strong>Pensée du 19 octobre</strong></a></h3>
<h4 style="text-align:right;"><a class="wpGallery" href="http://lacademie.wordpress.com/" target="_blank"><span class="wpGallery">NUL N’ENTRE ICI S’IL N’EST GEOMETRE</span></a></h4>
<h4 style="text-align:right;"><strong><a href="http://lacademos.ucao-uua.org/?page_id=500" target="_self">ALLER AU SOMMAIRE &#62;&#62;&#62;</a></strong></h4>
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<title><![CDATA[Liz's texts for reading group Fri 23 Oct 2009]]></title>
<link>http://pg2009.wordpress.com/2009/10/17/lizs-texts-for-reading-group-fri-23-oct-2009/</link>
<pubDate>Sat, 17 Oct 2009 08:15:07 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>Vivienne</dc:creator>
<guid>http://pg2009.wordpress.com/2009/10/17/lizs-texts-for-reading-group-fri-23-oct-2009/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Liz Coates has supplied four single page readings for Friday 23 October. I&#8217;ve sent them by ema]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>Liz Coates has supplied four single page readings for Friday 23 October. I&#8217;ve sent them by email as I&#8217;ve had a bit of difficulty posting them on the blog. Here&#8217;s the reference and 	Liz&#8217;s comments.- Viv </p>
<p><em>Ref:  John Berger, The Sight of a Man, in: Selected Essays &#38; Articles &#8211; The Look of Things, Pelican, Penguin Books Ltd, UK, 1972.<br />
The book in SofA library is a small paperback with yellowing pages and I had to do some adjusting in photoshop to make it readable.<br />
A great writer talking about visual perception; leads well into more scientific and cognitive discussions.</p>
<p>I&#8217;d also like to refer to two additional texts for interested readers.  Both these texts have a great deal of insights to share:</p>
<p>Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Cezanne&#8217;s Doubt, in: Sense and Non-Sense, (trans. Hubert L. Dreyfus &#38; Patricia Allen Dreyfus), Northwestern University Press, 1964, p.9-25.<br />
</em><br />
<em>Lawrence Gowing, Cezanne: The Logic of Organized Sensations (1977) in: Conversations with Cezanne, (ed.) Michael Doran, Berkeley, University of California Press, 2001, p.180-212.<br />
(I was tempted to submit this as the reading, but it is very long.  Full of insights about painting in general, B&#38;W images of Cezanne&#8217;s paintings scattered through the text.)</p>
<p>Best wishes,  Liz</em></p>
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<title><![CDATA[Ontologie et phénoménologie]]></title>
<link>http://lacademie.wordpress.com/2009/10/12/ontologie-et-phenomenologie/</link>
<pubDate>Mon, 12 Oct 2009 00:00:06 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>L'Academie de Philosophie</dc:creator>
<guid>http://lacademie.wordpress.com/2009/10/12/ontologie-et-phenomenologie/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[L&#8217;Atelier des concepts, Par Emmanuel AVONYO, op Semaine du 12 octobre 2009 ___________________]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p style="text-align:right;">L&#8217;Atelier des concepts, Par Emmanuel AVONYO, op</p>
<h4 style="text-align:right;">Semaine du 12 octobre 2009</h4>
<p style="text-align:justify;">____________________________________________________________________________</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">La phénoménologie, science descriptive des traits distinctifs de l’expérience, ouvre une nouvelle voie d’accès à l’ontologie. Le discours se réfère à ce qui <em>est</em> et porte au langage les divers liens par lesquels nous sommes reliés à la réalité. C’est la phénoménologie qui s’efforce de saisir les structures du vécu dont le langage est la traduction. Pour la phénoménologie, le langage dit notre relation aux choses, il dit même l’antérieur du langage. Ainsi, selon Ricœur, ne pas reconnaître l’existence d’un langage qui dit ce qui précède le langage, c’est s’enfermer dans la clôture des signes et en rester à l’étape du langage-objet. L’hypostase du discours est un symptôme de l&#8217;oubli de l&#8217;être. Mais la perte de la dimension ontologique n&#8217;est jamais si entière que l&#8217;on ne puisse encore reconnaître la trace de l&#8217;affirmation ontologique dans l&#8217;impulsion même qui porte le langage du signe vers le sens et du sens vers la référence.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">En effet, il y a comme un postulat ou une exigence de forme qui autorise à formuler une ontologie car il faut bien que quelque chose soit pour que l&#8217;on puisse parler à son sujet. Avant le langage, il y a l’être. Le langage dit notre inscription dans l’être. Si rien n’existait, rien ne serait dit de quoi que ce soit, car s’il n’existait rien, rien n’apparaîtrait, rien ne serait offert à la description du langage. C’est grâce à la phénoménologie que nous savons que nous sommes toujours orientés dans le langage vers ce qui est avant le langage. Malgré cette ouverture qu’offre la phénoménologie sur l’ontologie, Ricœur relève que la phénoménologie n’a pas toujours été une ontologie. La phénoménologie en se décentrant de la philosophie du langage, se distingue aussi de l’ontologie.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">La phénoménologie se veut une investigation des structures du vécu qui précèdent l&#8217;articulation dans le langage. On y distingue deux tendances : la philosophie idéaliste de la conscience qui subordonne le langage aux structures du vécu, et la philosophie qui interprète ontologiquement  le primat du vécu sur la conscience. C’est dans cette phénoménologie qu’émerge la problématique ontologique.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Ricœur affirme qu’il est difficile d’appeler la phénoménologie husserlienne une ontologie. Car, premièrement, dans cette phénoménologie, le langage a perdu sa prééminence ; il est seulement la couche de l&#8217;expression qui transpose dans les articulations du signe, ce qui est déjà préarticulé dans la structure noético-noématique. Et deuxièmement, l’intentionnalité husserlienne conçoit le monde seulement comme un ensemble de corrélats de conscience qui pourrait ne pas être. De fait, seule la conscience est ce qui ne peut pas ne pas être. Le monde est contingent, il a l’être relatif du phénomène, alors que la conscience a l’être nécessaire et absolu.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Toutefois, l’histoire de la philosophie enseigne qu’une ontologie sourd du développement de cette phénoménologie husserlienne. En découvrant l’antéprédicatif, l’antérieur à tout langage, à tout concept, à tout jugement, à toutes opérations prédicatives, comme plus tard dans « l’être sauvage » de Merleau-Ponty, la phénoménologie parviendra à thématiser un monde de la vie (<em>Lebenswelt</em>) antérieur au monde verbal et logique. En fait, l’ontologie qui point à l’horizon découle du renversement à l’intérieur de la phénoménologie du rapport sujet-objet. Selon Ricœur, des philosophes comme Heidegger, Gabriel Marcel et Merleau-Ponty ont opéré un retour à l’ontologie par la phénoménologie avec le renoncement à la centralité de la conscience. Le renversement du primat de la conscience a trouvé son expression exemplaire dans <em>Être et Temps</em> de Heidegger.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><strong>L’histoire du retour à l’ontologie par la phénoménologie</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">La nouvelle phénoménologie introduite par Heidegger ne part pas du cogito, mais de la question de l&#8217;être. Heidegger passe de la phénoménologie à l’ontologie et de l’ontologie à l’herméneutique. Cette ontologie fondamentale va de l’être qui engendre la question (<em>Gefragtes</em>) à l&#8217;être qui questionne (<em>Befragtes</em>). Ainsi, l&#8217;homme ne sera plus désigné par la conscience mais par l&#8217;être même qui lui donne d&#8217;être le questionnant de l&#8217;être ; c&#8217;est pourquoi le questionnant lui-même est désigné par un terme ontologique, Dasein, le « là » de la question de l&#8217;être. Le primat du vécu sur la conscience entraîne le primat de l’être sur le connaître, de l’être-dans-le-monde sur le rapport sujet-objet. Seul connaît celui qui a d&#8217;abord avec les choses la proximité du souci. C&#8217;est cette appartenance familière qui tient en germe toute la phénoménologie du corps propre ainsi que toute l’herméneutique.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">La situation herméneutique ne procède pas, à titre absolu, de l’existence des textes. Selon Heidegger, elle naît d’une bipolarité initiale caractérisée par le couple « se trouver en situation » et « s&#8217;y orienter par projet », c&#8217;est-à-dire de la possibilité d&#8217;expliciter dans des sens multiples la compréhension que nous prenons du rapport entre notre situation et nos possibilités. Car il faut d&#8217;abord avoir des racines et projeter ses possibles les plus propres sur le fond de cet être donné pour que s&#8217;ouvre une problématique de la compréhension et de l&#8217;interprétation. Comprendre et interpréter autrement la condition ontologique de l&#8217;existant que nous sommes, sont la résultante de ces structures ontologiques primordiales.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Selon Ricœur, le même retour à l&#8217;ontologie, opéré par Heidegger à partir de la phénoménologie, est effectué par Gabriel Marcel à partir de descriptions de caractère beaucoup plus existentiel dans un texte de 1925, <em>Existence et objectivité</em>. L’existence désigne le surgissement concret de l&#8217;individu humain, considéré à la fois dans son incarnation physique et sociale. L&#8217;existence ouvre, comme le Dasein chez Heidegger, l&#8217;accès au mystère. A la différence de Heidegger, Gabriel Marcel considère l’être et l’existence au lieu de l’être et le phénomène, il privilégie le rapport de personne à personne qui le conduit à qualifier l’ontologie d’abstraction. Pour Gabriel Marcel, l&#8217;espérance du malgré tout est sans doute l&#8217;expérience ontologique par excellence.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">En définitive, c’est l’œuvre de Merleau-Ponty qui accomplit le mieux le retour à l’ontologie par la phénoménologie. D’après Ricœur, elle témoigne de l&#8217;infléchissement progressif de la phénoménologie de Husserl dans le sens de l&#8217;ontologie heideggérienne avec l&#8217;appoint de thèmes marcelliens, comme celui du corps propre. Dans <em>Le Visible et l’Invisible</em> (1963), il développe une philosophie visant à réhabiliter le perçu, en deçà du langage et au niveau où le corps propre immerge le sujet dans le monde vécu. Cette phénoménologie existentielle, qui conjoignait les notions de sens et de vécu, s&#8217;avère porteuse d&#8217;une ontologie proche de Heidegger. C’est à travers le phénomène que l’être vient faire signe. Ainsi, il lui a fallu rompre avec la philosophie de la conscience qui animait l&#8217;enquête psychologique de sa <em>Phénoménologie de la perception</em>, ne plus partir de la distinction conscience-objet et adopter le préalable heideggérien de l&#8217;implication du sujet dans l&#8217;être. L’affirmation «  ma chair est la chair du monde » vise à une inscription sensible du rapport avec l&#8217;être qui devient, pour la philosophie, l&#8217;innommable.</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><a class="wp-caption" href="http://lacademie.wordpress.com/2009/10/19/le-temps/" target="_blank">&#62;&#62;&#62; LE TEMPS ENTRE OMBRES ET LUMIERES&#62;&#62;&#62;</a></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">VOIR &#62;&#62;&#62; <a class="wpGallery" href="http://lacademie.wordpress.com/latelier-des-concepts/ontologie-ii/" target="_blank"><strong>ONTOLOGIE-SCIENCE-LANGAGE</strong></a></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><a class="wpGallery" href="http://lacademos.ucao-uua.org/?page_id=500" target="_blank"><strong>SOMMAIRE&#62;&#62;&#62;</strong></a></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">______________________________________________________________________</p>
<p style="text-align:justify;"><strong>L&#8217;Atelier des concepts,</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:justify;">Emmanuel AVONYO, op</p>
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<title><![CDATA[The Human Condition? Here's Ardi! ]]></title>
<link>http://philosophyonthemesa.com/2009/10/02/the-human-condition-heres-ardi/</link>
<pubDate>Fri, 02 Oct 2009 19:00:54 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>Nina Rosenstand</dc:creator>
<guid>http://philosophyonthemesa.com/2009/10/02/the-human-condition-heres-ardi/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[ This is a good day for those of us who like to hear, and tell, stories of Human Origins: The curren]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p> This is a good day for those of us who like to hear, and tell, stories of Human Origins: The current story in the scientific world has been told for a while now, ever since Don Johanson found <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucy_(Australopithecus)">Lucy</a>, the <em>Australopithecus afarensis</em>, in Hadar, East Africa in 1974: We are the children of small-brained, upright-walking primates who lived some 3 million years ago—primates with insignificant canine teeth, and almost-human hands with opposable thumbs. A creature living on the savannah, enforcing the perception that it was the loss of woodlands that made our early ancestors get up on two legs and look around.</p>
<p>But now we have a brand new chapter in our Story of Origin. <em>Ardi</em> is being introduced to the world, in today’s issue of <a href="http://www.sciencemag.org/ardipithecus/326_36.pdf"><em>Science Magazine</em> </a>and all over the newsmedia: <em>Ardipithecus ramidus</em>, a new ancestor (perhaps), at least another traveler on the road that lead to Homo sapiens. The painstaking assembly and interpretation of Ardi’s fractured bones (skull, teeth, pelvis, hands, feet) took 17 years, but now the researchers, including Gen Suwa, Tim White, Yohannes Haile-Selassie, C. Owen Lovejoy and others,  have made their findings public. Ardi’s species predates Lucy by more than <strong>a million years</strong>, and it lived not far from that very same region. You can explore the details yourself if you are so inclined; personally, I am so excited that I can barely contain myself—this is the story I have been waiting for ever since the news of Lucy broke. <em>What came before Lucy?</em> Since 1974 we have known that the previous picture of early hominids as knuckle-walking, big-brained apes was wrong. We didn’t first develop the big brain, and then get up and walk. It was the other way around. But how far back in time did we diverge from the apes, and when did our hands leave the ground for good? We know that there were medium-sized monkey-type creatures dating back some 8 million years, and even dating back to the first early mammals, 60 million years ago, there were little mouse-sized mammals with some primate characteristics. But where the question gets interesting for most of us who are not paleontologists is, when did we start out on the road to becoming “Human”?</p>
<p>Of course this is one of the primary reasons why Darwin’s theory (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Descent_of_Man,_and_Selection_in_Relation_to_Sex"><em>The Descent of Man</em></a>, 1871) met with such massive resistance which can still be felt whenever the debate swings in the direction of Creationism and Intelligent Design: Did we descend from chimpanzees? The Darwinist answer has, usually, been No, not exactly: We and the apes we know today descended from a common ape-like ancestor—we just had to look around for a “missing link” that could show us the intermediary version. Since then, the entire concept of a “missing link” has been discredited: Evolution doesn’t work that way—we don’t have links in a straight chain, but rather a multitude of branches that arise and die out, with some branches ending up being more successful than others. And besides, so few fossils are ever found that it would be astonishing to find an exact Happy-Medium form in-between two distinct species. Well, perhaps that’s what we have now. While Ardi is not a “missing link” (because we should stop using that terminology), she is so old that she represents a hominid (or <em>hominim</em> which is the new and more exact term) who is not even as “human” as Lucy who was truly not very human except for her manner of walking, and her hands. So is she more like an ape? And this is where the surprise comes in: Not really, even if her feet look like ape feet. If ever we humans were ape-like, it must be even further back in time, because Ardi seems to have (1) been upright, judging from the position of her head and pelvis, and (2) had smaller canine teeth than apes. Furthermore, this is the end of the fantasy that we evolved bipedalism on the savannah: Ardi lived in and among the trees, judging from other fossil finds in the area! But even so, she was already upright and bipedal at least some of the time. So was she Lucy’s ancestor? They don’t know yet for certain, but there’s a good chance that her species gave rise to Lucy’s species. And if that is the case, then she is also our ancestor. And she was not typically ape-like. Now that has got to please those who have a problem with the notion that we are “descendants of apes,” but that would be a premature celebration—it doesn’t mean we are not related to primates, it just means that some typical ape-like features were lost in the human line much earlier that we thought, and perhaps the human line never had them, such as chimp-style knuckle-walking. And the chimps and the Bonobos are still our closest living cousins on the planet. That hasn’t changed.</p>
<p>Now all this is factual as well as interpretative science. Why am I so excited? For one thing, I’ve always been fascinated by paleoanthropology. But more importantly for a philosopher, I have also for many years thought that our human origin is at least to some degree a determinant for our &#8220;<a href="http://www.amazon.com/Human-Condition-Introduction-Philosophy-Nature/dp/1559347643">human condition</a>.&#8221; That’s what today is known as <em>evolutionary psychology</em>, but in more philosophical terms it means that our physical interface with the world (to borrow an expression from Merleau-Ponty) is an integral part of who we are, and how we interact with the world. Our <em>Lebenswelt</em> includes our physical being, and our physical being has an evolutionary history. If there’s anything that unites us as human beings, aside from our DNA, across the lines of politics, religion, race, gender, and so forth, it is this common history, the physical triggers that become the emotional and cognitive triggers. This is not to say that I discount the existence of “free will,” whatever that is—but our immense array of mental choices and possibilities is grounded in our physical abilities, limitations, and history.</p>
<p><img src="http://a.abcnews.com/images/Technology/ardi_2_090930_mn.jpg" border="0" alt="Photo: Before â??Lucy,â?? There Was â??Ardi:â?? First Major Analysis of One of Earliest Known Hominids" width="320" height="240" /></p>
<div id="cap-short">[<a href="Artist's conception of what Ardipithecus ramidus would have looked like 4.4 million years ago.">From ABC News</a>: Artist's conception of what Ardipithecus ramidus would have looked like 4.4 million years ago.</div>
<div>(J.H. Matternes/Science/ABC News Photo Illustration)]</div>
<p>So what can Ardi tell us, if the scientists are right? (1) We were upright, in the trees, long before we had the brains to make plans what to do with our freed-up hands, and comfortable being face-to-face with each other, close and personal, as well as probably capable of identifying each other at a distance; (2) we did not have massive canine teeth, meaning that the males probably didn’t fight over the females, meaning that we are perhaps looking at pair bonding and a semblance of gender cooperation (if not downright gender equality) dating back 4 million years—much more like the Bonobos than the Chimps, by the way. Does this mean that we were non-aggressive creatures, food for the predators rather than predators ourselves? Some of us would probably like to think so, but we can’t make that assumption. Look at Ardi’s eyes: Perfect stereoscopic vision, looking forward. Those are the eyes of a hunter, at least potentially, perhaps part-time if not full-time&#8212;opportunistic, like chimps. Besides, Ardi was omnivorous, like we are—she was not a vegetarian. The “killer ape” theory probably shouldn’t be declared totally dead yet.</p>
<p>In addition, <a href="http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2009/10/091001-ardipithecus-ramidus-ardi-oldest-human-fossils-sex.html"><em>National Geographic Magazine</em> </a>comes out with this spin: Why did we start walking upright? What can you do with free hands? Some of us would immediately say, You can hunt. But others would add, And you can gather. And bring what you have gathered to—your mate. Or the one you want to become your mate. Jamie Shreeve suggests just that scenario: We began embarking on the road to humanity by realizing that there was a sexual advantage to being able to bring food to one’s potential partner, in our freed-up grasping hands. And the upright female has another advantage: When she’s in estrus (heat) it doesn’t show. Which, according to Shreeve, would mean that she could string along the food-bringing male, even when she wasn’t ovulating, and even play around if she was so inclined. Now that opens up new vistas for the pair-bonding theory…</p>
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<title><![CDATA[what use is phenomenology?]]></title>
<link>http://plasticbodies.wordpress.com/2009/09/14/what-use-is-phenomenology/</link>
<pubDate>Mon, 14 Sep 2009 12:38:25 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>plasticbodies</dc:creator>
<guid>http://plasticbodies.wordpress.com/2009/09/14/what-use-is-phenomenology/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Side Effects has a post up which raises questions about the values and ideology lurking within the p]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>Side Effects has a <a href="http://side-effects.blogspot.com/2009/09/what-is-phenomenology.html" target="_blank">post </a>up which raises questions about the values and ideology lurking within the phenomenological movement. The post comes on the heels of the recent meeting of the Merleau-Ponty Circle, which I was supposed to present at but in the end had to miss. The post is too allusive to really decipher, but it brings up a couple of points which should be weighed.</p>
<p>First, what is phenomenology? I think this question can at this time be reformulated to ask, What use is phenomenology? It is obviously useful for staving off reductionism, but if it cannot deliver essences to us, then what is its real promise? It seems most useful as a tool or a bridge to some other mode or method philosophy, but it cannot be philosophy itself because it remains now and forever about human experience. The discipline of philosophy is about so much more than human experience that phenomenology can be, at best, one sliver of the discipline. It gets us provisional results, kind of like clues toward actual answers to philosophical problems.</p>
<p>So, what if it is admitted that phenomenology is a method or a &#8217;style&#8217; (Merleau-Ponty) of doing philosophy? This is not much better because, in so far as method determines subject matter, the phenomenological method begins its endeavor by restricting the given to what is given to us qua human. This is all I&#8217;ll say on this front because it is clear that my objection to phenomenology is its humanist attachments. Its commitments have ethical and political implications; more broadly, it strangles the potential of ontology/metaphysics.</p>
<p>If I am understanding him correctly, Side Effects is relating the disturbing fact that some phenomenological circles encourage their attendants to appreciate the matter at hand in the same way and with homogeneous enthusiasm. He writes:</p>
<p>&#8216;&#8230;it never occurred to me to modify the findings in order to fulfil a pregiven mission of what phenomenology ought to conclude. This kind of thought of sculpting a conclusion in order to contribute to a generalised ethos is totally foreign to me, and it is also foreign to my sense of doing phenomenology. What I discern in a particular reading or experience as disagreeable to my “self” as a human person in the world, is neither here nor there. Honesty must underscore phenomenological work, and personal psychology must be put to one side. In short, pleasure and pain ought to be totally indifferent to the work of phenomenology, with only the experience of <span style="font-style:italic;">strangeness </span>as a guarantor of the fruits of inquiry&#8217;.</p>
<p>There&#8217;s no reason why phenomenology cannot pursue ethical conclusions. But to begin by presupposing or enforcing a certain ethos, this is problematic. To reiterate, however, if the ethical potential of phenomenology&#8211;that is, what it can say about human beings and their myriad relations with other beings&#8211;is in some sense predetermined by the human-centered method of phenomenology, then we should hold our applause.</p>
<p>Second, I&#8217;m wondering if the revolutionary force of phenomenology has not turned sour to the extent that its limitations forbid us from speaking of realities beyond the human scope. Of course, yes. Phenomenology&#8217;s French critics have been showing this for decades. And yet the anonymous body and &#8216;inhuman nature&#8217; invoked by Merleau-Ponty (and cited by Side Effects) still remains undertheorized. It is as if Merleau-Ponty didn&#8217;t really mean anything when he employed these terms. What is he doing speaking about such things, as a phenomenologist, anyway?</p>
<p>Third, Side Effects concludes this:</p>
<p>&#8216;After all, there is a world prior to ethics, prior to politics, and above all, prior to gender, in which, if phenomenology is to have an ethical duty, then it ought to be toward uncovering that prepersonal world.&#8217;</p>
<p>The premise of this statement is strictly off limits to a phenomenologist because the prepersonal world is never given, never appears. It can only be inferred from experience; it cannot be intuited. This is just as true for Kant as it is for Husserl. I like the idea that phenomenology&#8217;s ethical concerns should be toward guiding us toward the prepersonal world. Two things arise in this notion, however. On the one hand, were phenomenology to say something about the prepersonal world, it would thereby cease being phenomenology. It would be speaking of a world which is nonphenomenal. On the other hand, phenomenology&#8217;s ethical duty can only be directed at the world which it knows, which is to say the world as it appears to human consciousness. This is a personal world, which means that its ethical duties can only be exclusively oriented toward the personal. It can aim to achieve an intuition of our common humanity, and thereby extend its sympathy beyond the immediately personal. But it will still remain bound the world of the person. That is, the human and its relations. This is okay if we are willing to concede that human relations constitute the totality of worldly relations.</p>
<p>In short, I think we need to interrogate phenomenology to see precisely if, and in what sense, it can make ontological statements that really say something about the things which it purports to speak about&#8211;the things themselves.</p>
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<title><![CDATA[Plastic Bodies]]></title>
<link>http://philosophyinatimeoferror.wordpress.com/2009/09/11/plastic-bodies/</link>
<pubDate>Fri, 11 Sep 2009 03:20:18 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>philosophyinatimeoferror</dc:creator>
<guid>http://philosophyinatimeoferror.wordpress.com/2009/09/11/plastic-bodies/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[It&#8217;s good to see some good stuff up on sensation and Merleau-Ponty. I like this on plasticity,]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p><img src="http://philosophyinatimeoferror.wordpress.com/files/2009/09/mponty.jpg" alt="mponty" title="mponty" width="150" height="214" class="alignright size-full wp-image-317" />It&#8217;s good to see some good stuff up on sensation and Merleau-Ponty. I like this on plasticity, which I would much rather read through M-P than through Malabou&#8217;s Hegel.</p>
<p><a href="goog_1252526911473">The upshot of conceiving bodies as plastic is that it erases the immutable core of bodily identity. It opens the capacity of the body to unforeseen and unforeseeable connections and encounters, putting the body in touch with its corporeal milieu without predetermining the possibilities of its embeddedness. This is a better way–in part, because it’s nonreductive–of thinking about the body’s relation to the world than, for instance, Merleau-Ponty’s. Where for Merleau-Ponty there is a certain ‘reversibility’ which obtains between bodies, plasticity regards intercorporeity as a matter of commerce or exchange. Body one is put under pressure and formed by body two; body two is then acted upon, perhaps but not necessarily, and formed by body one. The exchange is not reciprocal, nor is is necessarily symmetrical. Indeed, if we are to believe Nietzsche when he says that every encounter between bodies involves one stronger and one weaker body (see Deleuze’s </a><em><a href="goog_1252526911473">Nietzsche and Philosophy </a></em><a href="http://plasticbodies.wordpress.com/2009/08/28/this-is-your-brain-historicized/">on this), then there is no such thing as a symmetrical (and therefore truly reversible) encounter. In short, plasticity allows us to heed James’s insight that every little experience undergone by the body alters the body irremediably, and thereby creates a new body with new abilities and new powers. No elasticity, no recuperation.</a></p>
<p>Of course, I would love to ask Plastic Bodies a plastic body question&#8211;namely, if he was said to look like Ed Norton, I&#8217;m hoping it was before the fights scenes in Fight Club, not after.</p>
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<title><![CDATA[this is your brain historicized]]></title>
<link>http://plasticbodies.wordpress.com/2009/08/28/this-is-your-brain-historicized/</link>
<pubDate>Sat, 29 Aug 2009 03:25:51 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>plasticbodies</dc:creator>
<guid>http://plasticbodies.wordpress.com/2009/08/28/this-is-your-brain-historicized/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[One of the most important concepts in the neurosciences these days is plasticity. James was speaking]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><p>One of the most important concepts in the neurosciences these days is <em>plasticity</em>. James was speaking of brain plasticity in his discussion of habit at the end of the nineteenth century and in the last several decades plasticity has really caught on. No longer is the brain being conceived as a preprogrammed CPU; it has been opened to history. The term &#8220;plasticity&#8221; names the capacity of the brain to be molded by history, to be informed and shaped by corporeal experience, and to likewise give form to history through corporeal activity. The plasticity of the central nervous system is particularly liable to change while still developing, but its capacity for change remains throughout the span of a life&#8211;which means that each individual&#8217;s capacity to learn, adapt, and act is <em>singularized </em>insofar as his or her history is unique.</p>
<p>I&#8217;m not a neuroscientist, nor do I make a thorough effort to keep up on the discipline. The concept of plasticity, however, I find to be quite useful for thinking philosophically about the body. And I have no problem transplanting the concept of plasticity from the sciences into philosophy, allowing it to &#8216;deviate under the force&#8217; (Massumi) of the new theoretical context, which for me is the philosophy and phenomenology of embodiment. Catherine Malabou makes plasticity central to her own thinking about Hegelian dialectics; she thematizes the concept and draws some intriguing, if underdeveloped, political conclusions in her book <em>What Should We Do with Our Brain?</em> After James&#8217;s <em>Principles</em>, this is a good text to start with if you want to philosophize about plasticity. Malabou does a nice job of unfolding the meaning of plasticity, and suggesting its applications beyond the neurosciences.</p>
<p>The upshot of conceiving bodies as plastic is that it erases the immutable core of bodily identity. It opens the capacity of the body to unforeseen and unforeseeable connections and encounters, putting the body in touch with its corporeal milieu without predetermining the possibilities of its embeddedness. This is a better way&#8211;in part, because it&#8217;s nonreductive&#8211;of thinking about the body&#8217;s relation to the world than, for instance, Merleau-Ponty&#8217;s. Where for Merleau-Ponty there is a certain &#8216;reversibility&#8217; which obtains between bodies, plasticity regards intercorporeity as a matter of commerce or exchange. Body one is put under pressure and formed by body two; body two is then acted upon, perhaps but not necessarily, and formed by body one. The exchange is not reciprocal, nor is is necessarily symmetrical. Indeed, if we are to believe Nietzsche when he says that every encounter between bodies involves one stronger and one weaker body (see Deleuze&#8217;s <em>Nietzsche and Philosophy </em>on this), then there is no such thing as a symmetrical (and therefore truly reversible) encounter. In short, plasticity allows us to heed James&#8217;s insight that every little experience undergone by the body alters the body irremediably, and thereby creates a new body with new abilities and new powers. No elasticity, no recuperation.</p>
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<title><![CDATA[cuerpo]]></title>
<link>http://monicaramela.wordpress.com/2009/08/08/cuerpo/</link>
<pubDate>Sat, 08 Aug 2009 22:40:44 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>monicaramela</dc:creator>
<guid>http://monicaramela.wordpress.com/2009/08/08/cuerpo/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[…! Mi cuerpo, mi tierra!, ¿Cómo se puede pensar en ti, cosa la más íntima y la más extranjera?. Mis ]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><blockquote>
<p style="text-align:center;"><em>…! Mi cuerpo, mi tierra!, ¿Cómo se puede pensar en ti, cosa la más íntima y la más extranjera?. Mis senos me sorprenden. Me parece que son bellos. ¿Pero qué hacen sobre mí esas bellas formas de carne?. Después de todo, lo que llamo mi cuerpo es el fruto de cantidad de descubrimientos.¿Acaso se ha jamás terminado de explorar?. A veces, un gesto improvisado, un movimiento que hacemos para no caer, nos dan la sensación de que todo es nuevo para nosotros… ¿Por qué no hacer un Diario del propio cuerpo? ¿Osaría escribir mi cuepro?, ¿Todo lo que yo sé de él?. No mi cuerpo, aquel de los médicos, sino el que Yo conozco. El es mi ciencia, y, estoy segura, el límite de toda ciencia, él sus asuntos, molestias, necesidades e impedimentos, sus regularidades y trastornos, sus digestiones, reglas y los sucios detalles húmedos del amor…!Oh, cuerpo sin gloria, algún santo debería haber amado tu excremento!, interior todavía, es sagrado como algo de Mí, y cuando digo mí, él está allí, comprendiendo. Luego se vuelve distinto todavía en mí, e imperioso. Un extranjero que se debe expulsar. Sin embargo, es mi creación, mi obra más importante…¿Pero qué es, también, más extraño, que el hecho de que haya un dentro y un fuera?. </em></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><em><strong>Valery Paul, en el Journal d Emma.</strong></em></p>
<p style="text-align:center;"><em><img class="aligncenter size-medium wp-image-1461" title="flight_2" src="http://monicaramela.wordpress.com/files/2009/08/flight_2.jpg?w=300" alt="flight_2" width="300" height="225" /><br />
Es viviendo mi tiempo que puedo comprender los demás tiempos, es ahicándome en el presente y en el mundo… que puedo ir más allá. No tenemos por qué temer que nuestras opciones y nuestras acciones restrinjan nuestra libertad. </em>
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<p style="text-align:center;"><strong><em>Merleau-Ponty, M, Phénoménologie de la perception.</em></strong></p>
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<title><![CDATA[Acerca del Pensamiento Crítico]]></title>
<link>http://holismoplanetario.wordpress.com/2009/08/06/acerca-del-pensamiento-critico/</link>
<pubDate>Thu, 06 Aug 2009 17:58:33 +0000</pubDate>
<dc:creator>holismoplanetario</dc:creator>
<guid>http://holismoplanetario.wordpress.com/2009/08/06/acerca-del-pensamiento-critico/</guid>
<description><![CDATA[Acerca del PENSAMIENTO CRÍTICO Por Víctor Montero Cam Para explicar un concepto cualquiera con funda]]></description>
<content:encoded><![CDATA[<div class='snap_preview'><h1 style="text-align:center;"><span style="color:#0000ff;"><strong>Acerca del PENSAMIENTO CRÍTICO</strong></span></h1>
<p style="text-align:center;"><strong>Por Víctor Montero Cam</strong></p>
<p style="text-align:center;">
<p>Para explicar un concepto cualquiera con fundamento histórico-filológico suficiente es preciso remontarse a los orígenes significativos o etimología de ese concepto. Por eso veamos primero qué significaba originariamente nuestro substantivo y adjetivo español &#8220;crítico&#8221; en su propio contexto histórico-vital.</p>
<p>La palabra griega krísis significa &#8220;separación, distinción, elección, disentimiento, disputa; decisión, juicio, resolución, sentencia, etc.&#8221;</p>
<p>Hechas las precisiones semánticas anteriores, expongo a continuación mi propia interpretación de acuerdo con el sentido originariamente griego del término krísis:</p>
<p>«Todo disentimiento de una posición doctrinaria con respecto a otra de signo contrario implica una decisión, una resolución. Disentir es sentir de manera diferente, es elegir la separación o el corte voluntario (alem. Ent-scheidung) con respecto a los presupuestos o principios fundamentales de una posición doctrinaria esencialmente distinta; por lo tanto, todo auténtico disentimiento desemboca inexorablemente en una disputa permanente entre argumentos de signo contrario. La firmeza de una crítica radica en dos clases de virtud (lat. virtus): la virtud lógica, es decir la de los argumentos en sí mismos, y la virtud ético-política, es decir la del argumentador que los propugna y les da pleno sentido y significación mediante el testimonio de la acción efectiva de su vida diaria.» (Bhanzy)</p>
<p>No puedo, ni es mi propósito -muy por el contrario- ocultar mi profunda y manifiesta deuda doctrinaria con el existencialismo humanista de Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980). Sintetizando el pensamiento de este filósofo francés contemporáneo, el maestro Augusto Salazar Bondy, al referirse al irrenunciable compromiso del ser humano frente a su particular momento y situación histórica, ha sostenido que:</p>
<p>«El pensamiento genuino se compromete con la realidad y, por esto, el filósofo debe tomar partido concreto. En verdad no se trata de una conducta optativa, que se puede asumir o dejar, y que cabría meditar fríamente o dejar pasar con indiferencia. El filósofo, en cada uno de los actos reflexivos que acomete, en cada idea que formula, en las consecuencias que saca de sus premisas y supuestos está comprometido, actúa en pro o en contra de una determinada tendencia histórica. Se trata, por tanto, de que la filosofía sea asumida como un compromiso lúcido, como una decisión existencial que comporta una responsabilidad reconocida y proclamada.<br />
Sólo aparentemente la filosofía es, pues, un quehacer de gabinete. Lo que piensa y dice el filósofo afecta demasiado gravemente al hombre y su destino como para poder ocurrir simplemente en la reserva de un estudio privado. El filósofo está siempre apelando a los hombres y siendo solicitado por ellos. No cabe ninguna reclusión verdadera, salvo como abdicación de la tarea vital, lo que es también, a su modo, una opción que compromete ante los demás y a los demás.</p>
<p>La filosofía, como Sartre la ve y la practica, es, pues, una pasión del ser humano que pone a la conciencia pensante en el centro de la historia.»(0)</p>
<p>Igualmente, desde la misma línea afirmativa de pensamiento, el filósofo argentino Alejandro Korn (1860-1936), en un ensayo de 1924 dedicado a Kant, afirmó en una oportunidad que «no ha de ir la filosofía por un lado y la vida por otro». Estoy totalmente de acuerdo con este enunciado de Korn y trataré brevemente de explicarlo. Ya he mencionado en otro lugar que la distinción entre filosofía y vida es sobre todo metodológica, y semejante a la que comúnmente se establece entre cuerpo y alma en el hombre.</p>
<p>¿Cómo determinar con precisión matemática el límite entre lo que denominamos cuerpo entendido como aquel conjunto tangible y mensurable de complejas funciones biológicas y psicológicas y, por otro lado, el alma como una interconexión o entrelazamiento invisible de las poderosas fuerzas dinámicas, inéditas y creativas del espíritu humano que dan sentido y una comprensión de conjunto a la vida humana y al universo entero? La filosofía es la vida misma esencial y auténticamente vivida. Esencial porque en tanto seres esencialmente racionales nos corresponde una vida vivida reflexivamente. Auténtica porque sólo mediante un uso consciente de nuestra razón, es decir mediante el descubrimento del poder interior del juicio humano contenido en la crítica, es posible alcanzar una liberación total (no sólo exterior o material sino fundamentalmente espiritual) y una realización duradera (no sólo efímera o pasajera) en tanto seres humanos.</p>
<p>El espíritu de la filosofía griega, como hemos visto, era un espíritu de juicio (krísis), de discernimiento crítico entre el ser y el no ser, entre la verdad y la ilusión, entre el bien y el mal. Por eso el verdadero valor de la vida únicamente podemos captarlo con el poder de nuestro juicio, que es el poder central del hombre, la fuente de la verdad y de la moral. Este poder es la única cosa en la cual el hombre depende por entero de sí mismo, lo único que lo convierte en un ser sensible y racional verdaderamente libre.(1)</p>
<p>He calificado mi pensamiento de crítico porque su intención principal es la de criticar, cuestionar, poner en tela de juicio y problematizar cualquier verdad o conocimiento que, sin un juicio crítico previo, pretenda erigirse como el único, el mejor, el último, el definitivo, el supremo o absoluto.</p>
<p>Por eso, el pensamiento crítico en tanto pensamiento radicalmente libre y liberador, no hipoteca su inteligencia o sus íntimas convicciones en favor de ningún dogma político o credo religioso ni tampoco vende sus convicciones por prebendas. No todo se vende, felizmente, aun cuando algunos estén dispuestos a vender -por falta de escrúpulos o ceguera momentánea- su íntimo y sagrado patrimonio: sus conciencias pensantes. Como ha señalado Barylko, refiriéndose a la filosofía crítica de Kant, &#8220;criticar es poner en crisis los dogmas y los absolutismos&#8221;. (2)</p>
<p>«El pensamiento crítico que observa a la sociedad y sus dobles verdades -las de la realidad y las del discurso- y las denuncia es, en su esencia, de izquierda. Es, en su esencia, revolucionario.» (3)</p>
<p>Pero uno podría preguntarse aún ¿qué significa &#8220;ser de izquierda&#8221;?</p>
<p>«Ser de izquierda es, fundamentalmente, buscar un cambio de raíz [...] Ser de izquierda es ser in-satisfecho(4) y considerar que este mundo no es bueno y podría ser mejor para todos.» (5)</p>
<p>Ahora bien, como las tareas del pensamiento crítico en relación al cuestionamiento profundo de las verdades prefabricadas tienen como su principal campo de desarrollo la praxis, esto es, el ámbito práctico-valorativo en el que se desenvuelve la totalidad de la experiencia humana de sentido, es necesario que aclare con cierto detalle mi concepto de praxis.</p>
<p>En primer lugar, práxis es una palabra griega que significa principalmente &#8220;acción, conducta&#8221; y de ella viene nuestro español &#8220;práctica&#8221;. Prágma es otra palabra de origen griego cuyo significado es &#8220;asunto, cosa&#8221; y de ésta deriva nuestro español &#8220;pragmático&#8221;. Práxis y prágma son dos términos que en griego clásico significan aproximadamente lo mismo. En realidad, estos dos substantivos griegos tienen innumerables acepciones al español. Entre ellas podemos mencionar las siguientes.: &#8220;acción, acto, conducta; ocupación, asunto, negocio, cosa, empresa, realización; modo de obrar, obligación, tarea; circunstancia, situación; molestia, dificultad, embarazo, situación desagradable, etc.&#8221;</p>
<p>De lo anterior, desde un punto de vista filosófico y de acuerdo con un fino análisis filológico ceñido a varias palabras claves e iluminadoras del griego y el latín, entiendo por &#8220;práctica&#8221; la combinación de acciones desplegadas por un ser humano, en circunstancias variables, sobre la cosa presentada como objeto (lat. objectum), es decir, en su cualidad de obstáculo o impedimiento, de &#8220;lo puesto delante o frente a nosotros&#8221;, como aquello que se opone entre (lat. interponere) la verdad y nosotros mismos y que exige ser superado (lat. superare). Comprendida una &#8220;acción&#8221; cualquiera de esta manera, nuestro esfuerzo cotidiano consiste en la búsqueda de los correctos procedimientos para hacerse camino apartando los obstáculos (lat. impedimenta) que no nos permiten descubrir la verdad (gr. alétheia).</p>
<p>Para cumplir dicha labor de despejamiento del camino (gr. jódos) y hacerlo transitable, debemos aprehender (lat. prendere) el método (gr. méthodos) apropiado a fin de desatar (lat. re-solvere) las cadenas (lat. vincula) que traban nuestros pies y que nos impiden abrirnos paso a través del camino. Entonces la actitud del alma humana, en tanto posición, reposición y disposición (lat. situs, gestus y habitus) frente al obstáculo, debe ser la de un valiente (lat. animosus) encaramiento o enfrentamiento con éste para vencerlo (lat. vincere) o, al menos, de ser ello imposible, sobrellevarlo (lat. sustinere). Sólo con la comprensión de uno mismo como ser-esencialmente-para-la-acción, pues &#8220;la obra del espíritu solamente existe en acto&#8221; (6), el hombre puede llegar a liberarse de los obstáculos que lo encadenan y, al librarse de ellos, alcanzar así una liberación mayor aún: la liberación de sí mismo para alcanzar el centro cósmico en la plena luz, transparencia y lucidez de la Pura Presencia, en la conciencia despierta del entrelazamiento de luces que se traspasan entre sí, sin hendidura alguna, en la inmersión apacible y beatífica en un Gran Otro Absoluto y Total que no soy yo -distinto de mí- pero del cual yo participo y hago posible.</p>
<p>El misterio humano como problema filosófico irresoluble es reemplazado, de esta manera, por la experiencia vívida de la presencia de un Gran Otro Puro a través de un pequeño yo no-puro. El discurso puramente reflexivo cede así a la experiencia mixta co-rrazonada del hombre desde lo más hondo de su Ser. Es la experiencia de la contingencia humana, de la precariedad existencial del hombre, de la total ausencia de garantía en los actos humanos de los pequeños otros y, en consecuencia, la resolución final -luego de esta constatación- del surgimiento iterativo de su apuesta, de su afirmación permanente por la vida del espíritu en un mundo en el que todas las humanas personas -yo, tú, él, nosotros, vosotros y ellos- deciden re-establecer relaciones humanas auténticas pese a la fragilidad esencial de todos sus agentes. En un mundo humano carente de garantías absolutas, cualquier empeño humano por habitar un mundo mejor es ya, en sí mismo, valioso.</p>
<p>La radical soledad -su soledad metafísica, por decirlo de algún modo- y la inexorabilidad de su muerte -es decir, su agotamiento progresivo y su extinción como cuerpo que piensa- hacen del hombre un ser intrínsecamente dual -sensible y reflexivo- y lo convierten en el único ser capaz de encontrar en la co-existencia, en la inter-humanidad como fuente pertinaz de vínculos de sentido, como adherente a un mundo que es mucho más que el suyo propio -es decir el de cada uno de nosotros- su única posibilidad de habitar con dignidad humana un mundo que no es solamente humano. Sólo en la experiencia de lo originario de su Ser el ser humano puede superar así su humanidad, liberándose de las limitaciones -muchas, por cierto- de su condición humana y convertirse en un fenómeno trans-humano, libre de sí mismo, habitante y co-partícipe del Gran Otro Absoluto.</p>
<p>NOTAS</p>
<p>(0) Augusto Salazar Bondy, ¿Qué es filosofía?, Lima: Vilock, S.A., 1967, p. 19. (Las cursivas son mías)</p>
<p>(1) Cf. Ernst Cassirer, Antropología filosófica, trad. Eugenio Imaz, 8va. reimp., México: Fondo de Cultura Económica, 1977, p. 24.</p>
<p>(2) Jaime Barylko, Filosofía: invitación a pensar, Buenos Aires: Planeta, 1997, p. 153.</p>
<p>(3) Ibidem, op. cit., p. 202. (La expresión en negrita es mía).</p>
<p>(4) In-satisfecho, es decir, no satis-fecho porque no se ha &#8220;hecho o construido bastante o lo suficiente&#8221;. Este participio español proviene del verbo latino satisfacio, el mismo que está compuesto por el adverbio satis más el verbo facio. El adverbio de modo satis significa &#8220;bastante, suficientemente&#8221; y &#8220;facio&#8221; es un verbo irregular que significa, entre otras cosas, &#8220;hacer, construir; producir; sufrir.&#8221; &#8220;Fecho&#8221; (forma verbal del español antiguo) proviene del participio pasado de facio, que es factum, i.e. lo hecho; de aquí se origina el sustantivo neutro FACTUM, o sea el hecho, la acción, el trabajo.</p>
<p>(5) Jaime Barylko, op. cit., p. 202.</p>
<p>(6) Paul Válery, Introduction a là poétique, p. 40, cit. por Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Fenomenología de la percepción, trad. por Jem Cabanes, Origen/Planeta (Colección: Obras Maestras del Pensamiento Contemporáneo), 1985, p. 52.</p>
<p>Fuente: <a href="http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Parthenon/2380/critico.html">http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Parthenon/2380/critico.html</a></p>
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