More than a century ago, English engineers built a barrage near Ghaziabad for storing the river water, which was diverted to the R. Yamuna, to improve the latter’condition, by a link canal. That time it was indeed a brave attempt.

Today, if one visits the first river linking canal, one is bound to feel the limitations of human calculations.

First, its dirty condition. All the urban waste, down the canal, is discharged into the canal. One cannot go near it, without covering the nose by a thick kerchief. It is a breeding ground for mosqutos.

Secondly, a number of bridges had to be built, when new housing colonies and roads came up, something unimaginable in 1908, when east Delhi was a waste land.

Lastly, the rulers just forgot the existence of this canal.

If the Ganga – Kaveri link canal is built, it will be a national latrine!

Com a chegada do calor e a invasão dos mosquitos, segue uma super dica de repelente natural contra estes vilões voadores. É um repelente eficiente e barato, que funciona mesmo! O limão, quem diria, tão apreciado nas caipirinhas, não tem o mesmo prestígio entre os mosquitos. Aliado ao cravo, ajuda-nos a combater o Aedes Aegypt. O cravo-da-índia, espalhado por superfícies, é muito utilizado para afastar formigas. Contra mosquitos era novidade, até que nosso pai, que é químico experimentou e ficou admirado com os resultados. Faça como na foto. Enterre alguns cravos em meio limão. Faça isso com 3 ou 4 limões e espalhe pela casa.

Mais uma arma para afastar os mosquitos e se prevenir contra a dengue, malária e outras doenças transmitidas por mosquitos!

the story:

i seriously hate mosquitos. frankly, i think they are one of the worst creations on the ever-loving-planet. and this is coming from someone who loves animals–actually believes animals have rights and what not–and likes nature and things like creation-care. but damn it all to hell in a hand-basket, mosquitos are satan incarnate. times a million.

that being said, i made the obtuse decision to move half way around the world to east africa, the birth place and recreational playground of mosquitos of various shapes, sizes and stupidity.

i handled this fact cooly and calmly for over a year.

and then i kind of lost it.

here’s how it went down:

it was a normal sunday evening, and i was just trying to enjoy a agatha christie novel whilst lounging on my bed (under my mosquito net. of course). it was early in the evening, and being far from ready to retire completely for the night, i had not tucked in my mosquito net. (you see, this is an act saved only for that moment you have decided to take a sleep.)

i was being bombarded with kamikaze-like mosquitos and fearing that if i lost any more blood to these cousins of beelzebub i was going to pass out.  i began to systematically kill anything that moved within my net.

countless mosquitos (like, maybe a thousand) a fly or two and an unfortunate small praying mantis all called it curtains during my swatting-spree. this bug-o-cide did not seem to send the message to the mosquito community that i was hoping for–they seemed undeterred.

desperate times call for desperate measures, and this expat was desperate. so i did the first thing that came to mind: light the candle.

(side note: i have a candle in a small tin on my bed because i like to read before i got to sleep–and do not want want to have to get out of bed to turn off the light…not to mention that if i’m in bed and reading to go to sleep the net will be tucked in thus creating too much to do in a sleepy state–so i read by candle light. why candle light and not a flash light? because while the candle attracts bugs it also kills them. a flashlight doesn’t do that. clearly my pacifism does not extend to the insect world.)

in lighting the candle i was hoping to attract the mosquito-mayhem toward the candle and away from my flesh. this fooled maybe one one-thousandth of the little blighters.

really desperate times call for really desperate measures.

in a fit of fury and rage i turned the candle upon the mosquito net, it wasn’t working anyhow, and shouted,

“i shall come at you with shoes fire of GLORY and SPLENDOR!”

my treated mosquito net went up with a flash–faster than i was expecting, leaving my hair singed and the newly installed smoke alarm in the hall shouting hysterically… once the smoke cleared, i was able to take stock of the damage done. (that was intentional and that which was unintentional.)
there was nary a mosquito in my room, let alone in the house after that episode…and at last, i felt vindicated….

or what really happened:

i melted a small hole, the size of an american quarter, in my net with said candle.

lit candle,
turned off light,
moved net to get into bed.
in the process of moving net it came into close contact (as in touching) the candle flame.

i feel this part of the real story is best told in poem form:

melt, melt melt.
cuss, cuss, cuss.
pat, pat, pat.
duct tape, duct tape, duct tape.
the end.

n.b. no more mosquitos than usual were harmed in the creation of this story. but i still hate them.

]]> http://marirrosa.wordpress.com/2009/11/16/e-guerra/ Mon, 16 Nov 2009 21:26:32 +0000 Mari Rosa http://marirrosa.wordpress.com/2009/11/16/e-guerra/

Mais um episódio. Essa noite a batalha foi violenta.

Tudo começa quando a noite cai, como mágica eles surgem do seu lado e já dão seus sinais de ataque. Eles querem sangue! Quanto mais melhor.

O inimigo ataca em bando. Eu já não sei quantos eram, deviam ser seis ou sete, mas para mim pareceu um batalhão completo. Eu estava dormindo quando me acordaram com seu barulhinho infernal, ZzzZzzz…. mas eu também estava armada, peguei meu Raid e tssssssssssss neles! Por alguns minutos eu tive paz, mas eles voltaram… fiquei nervosa! Apelei para as almofadadas… pá pá pow… Agora sim, a batalha estava ganha.

Eu queria tanto dormir. O calor já nao ajudava, estava realmente complicado ter uma noite tranquila mas acho que depois da guerra de travesseiros eu vou conseguir… … … … me enganei: ZZzzzZzzZZZzzZZz! E é um tal de coloca o lençol na cara, e tira lençol, e mexe para um lado, para o outro, estapeia o ar. Há que raiva! Levantei. Acendi a luz. E declarei Guerra!! Fui fazer justiça com as minhas próprias mãos e eu não ia descansar enquanto não visse cada um deles no chão. PÁ – um já era! Na minha mão eu vi o sangue! Vou matar um a um nem que eu fique até o dia raiar.  E assim foi… até que de fato derrotei todos eles…

Mas como é ruim.  Um bichinho daquele tamanho, tirar a gente da cama em pleno sono causa muito mau-humor. Espero que hoje a noite eles não voltem, malditos Mosquitos!!!

Calles desiertas de tan poco que exhiben y tanto mucho que esconden. Solares de aventuras y fantasías hacen la tarde y con ella, el humo virulento y redentor que invade las historias cotidianas de nuestra gente para lapidar al vector.

Aquellos calzones en el picaporte del closet, ese búcaro con flores plásticas que esconden el dinero de la abuela, un vaso espiritual por los santos magnificados en la soledad…

¡Mira ese pan!… envuelto en nailon, con el moho que es el Tiempo y llena tu barriga…

- ¡Ese cuarto NO!

- Si, señora

- ¡Cuidado con el pajarito del niño!

- ¡Qué sí señoraaaa!

Así se nos hace la vida, fumigando con el alma, por un mejor vivir, con todos y para todos, sin pedir nada a cambio…

Adrian Fuentes. ElTaburete.

· Titulo Fragmento de un tema de Inti Santana, trovador cubano.

México, DF.- La Fundación Bill y Melinda Gates donó 100 mil dólares al investigador emérito de la UNAM, Lourival Domingos Possani Postay, para aislar y probar la eficiencia de péptidos bloqueadores del paludismo o malaria en mosquitos que transmiten esa enfermedad al ser humano.

Lourival Domingos Possani Postay

El trabajo del científico universitario, titulado “Bloqueadores de canales de potasio para el control del paludismo”, se centra en utilizar un péptido ya identificado del veneno de alacrán, llamado Escorpina, para bloquear y detener el paso del parásito Plasmodium al mosquito Anopheles, que al picar al ser humano transmite la enfermedad, según comunicado de la UNAM.

“Encontramos la estructura de la Escorpina muy parecida a las toxinas que bloquean los canales de potasio. Con la utilización de enzimas rompimos la molécula de ese péptido a la mitad y descubrimos que una parte tiene acción antimicrobiana, mientras otra podría ser semejante a las toxinas que bloquean esos canales iónicos. La sorpresa fue comprobar que sí bloquean los canales de potasio. Entonces la Escorpina puede detener la transmisión del paludismo entre el parásito y el mosquito vector”, explicó Possani Postay.

El proyecto resultó uno de los 76 seleccionados entre 3 mil propuestas provenientes de 16 países de los cinco continentes y el único mexicano en obtenerlo.

El financiamiento para un año forma parte del programa “Donativo para Exploración de Grandes Retos para Investigación Innovadora en Salud Global”, que elige proyectos innovadores con estrategias originales para enfrentar enfermedades mundiales, como el VIH-sida, tuberculosis, dengue y el paludismo o malaria, que afectan con más intensidad a países en desarrollo en zonas tropicales y subtropicales del mundo.

“Los ganadores de estos donativos muestran el pensamiento audaz que se necesita para resolver los mayores retos globales en el área de la salud”, dijo el presidente del Programa de Salud Global de la Fundación Gates, Tachi Yamada.

Fuente: LaCiberPrensa. Bill Gates apoya investigación de UNAM sobre paludismo

Voy a hablaros de una enfermedad que pueden contraer los perros, la LEISHMANIOSIS. En invierno hacemos campaña de detección precoz, fundamental para tratarla a tiempo si la padecen. Empecemos.

Es una enfermedad infecciosa producida por un parasito de rápida

multiplicación en el organismo que se transmite por la picadura de un mosquito.

Esta enfermedad está ampliamente extendida por todos los países de la cuenca mediterránea y tiene un índice de incidencia muy alto en la comunidad de Madrid.

Síntomas

Generalmente son muy inespecíficos. Hay dos tipos de manifestaciones de la enfermedad, aunque ambas presentaciones se suelen solapar:

o Forma cutánea, caracterizada por descamación seca, pelo seco y quebradizo, calvas y costras en punta de rabo, orejas y alrededor

de los ojos, nódulos cutáneos y crecimiento excesivo de uñas.

o Forma visceral, en la cual pueden presentar pueden presentar

pérdida de peso, ganglios aumentados de tamaño, poliartritis,

sangrado nasal, sintomatología renal,…..

Diagnóstico

Tanto en animales aparentemente sanos como en los que presenten síntomas, el diagnóstico se realiza mediante la detección de anticuerpos en sangre. Esta es la parte más importante: la detección precoz es la que nos puede permitir tratar al perro con éxito. Si se diagnostica tarde, puede ser irreversible y llegar a morir.

Tratamiento

Es una enfermedad de curso crónico. Con el tratamiento no se consigue erradicar el parásito completamente del animal enfermo, pero si se puede controlar y evitar que se desarrolle la enfermedad o hacer que esta regrese, por eso tras el tratamiento habrá que mantener un seguimiento periódico para intentar evitar recaídas.

¿ Dudas ?

Mosquito (from the Spanish meaning little fly^[1]) is a common insect in the family Culicidae (from the Latin culex meaning midge or gnat^[2]). Mosquitoes resemble crane flies (family Tipulidae) and chironomid flies (family Chironomidae), with which they are sometimes confused by the casual observer.

Mosquitoes go through four stages in their life cycle: egg, larva, pupa, and adult or imago. Adult females lay their eggs in water, which can be a salt-marsh, a lake, a puddle, a natural reservoir on a plant, or an artificial water container such as a plastic bucket. The first three stages are aquatic and last 5–14 days, depending on the species and the ambient temperature; eggs hatch to become larvae, then pupae. The adult mosquito emerges from the pupa as it floats at the water surface. Adult females can live up to a month – more in captivity – but most probably do not live more than 1–2 weeks in nature.

Mosquitoes have mouthparts which are adapted for piercing the skin of plants and animals. They typically feed on nectar and plant juices. In some species, the female needs to obtain nutrients from a “blood meal” before she can produce eggs.

There are about 3,500 species of mosquitoes found throughout the world. In some species of mosquito, the females feed on humans, and are therefore vectors for a number of infectious diseases affecting millions of people per year.^[3][4]

The duration from egg to adult varies considerably among species and is strongly influenced by ambient temperature. Mosquitoes can develop from egg to adult in as little as five days but usually take 10–14 days in tropical conditions. The variation of the body size in adult mosquitoes depends on the density of the larval population and food supply within the breeding water. Adult flying mosquitoes frequently rest in a tunnel that they build right below the roots of the grass.

Adult mosquitoes usually mate within a few days after emerging from the pupal stage. In most species, the males form large swarms, usually around dusk, and the females fly into the swarms to mate.

Males live for about a week, feeding on nectar and other sources of sugar. Females will also feed on sugar sources for energy but usually require a blood meal for the development of eggs. After obtaining a full blood meal, the female will rest for a few days while the blood is digested and eggs are developed. This process depends on the temperature but usually takes 2–3 days in tropical conditions. Once the eggs are fully developed, the female lays them and resumes host seeking.

The cycle repeats itself until the female dies. While females can live longer than a month in captivity, most do not live longer than 1–2 weeks in nature. Their lifespan depends on temperature, humidity, and also their ability to successfully obtain a blood meal while avoiding host defenses.

Length of the adult varies but is rarely greater than 16 mm (0.6 in)^[5], and weigh up to 2.5 mg (0.04 grain). All mosquitoes have slender bodies with three sections: head, thorax and abdomen.

The head is specialized for acquiring sensory information and for feeding. The head contains the eyes and a pair of long, many-segmented antennae. The antennae are important for detecting host odors as well as odors of breeding sites where females lay eggs. In all mosquito species, the antennae of the males in comparison to the females are noticeably bushier and contain auditory receptors to detect the characteristic whine of the female. The compound eyes are distinctly separated from one another. Their larvae only possess a pit-eye ocellus. The compound eyes of adults develop in a separate region of the head.^[6] New ommatidia are added in semicircular rows at the rear of the eye; during the first phase of growth, this leads to individual ommatidia being square, but later in development they become hexagonal. The hexagonal pattern will only become visible when the carapace of the stage with square eyes is molted.^[6] The head also has an elongated, forward-projecting “stinger-like” proboscis used for feeding, and two sensory palps. The maxillary palps of the males are longer than their proboscis whereas the females’ maxillary palps are much shorter. (This is typical for representatives of subfamilies.) As with many members of the mosquito family, the female is equipped with an elongated proboscis that she uses to collect blood to feed her eggs.

The thorax is specialized for locomotion. Three pairs of legs and a pair of wings are attached to the thorax. The insect wing is an outgrowth of the exoskeleton. The Anopheles mosquito can fly for up to four hours continuously at up to 1–2 km/h^[7] travelling up to 12 km (7.5 mi) in a night.

The abdomen is specialized for food digestion and egg development. This segmented body part expands considerably when a female takes a blood meal. The blood is digested over time serving as a source of protein for the production of eggs, which gradually fill the abdomen.

The duration from egg to adult varies considerably among species and is strongly influenced by ambient temperature. Mosquitoes can develop from egg to adult in as little as five days but usually take 10–14 days in tropical conditions. The variation of the body size in adult mosquitoes depends on the density of the larval population and food supply within the breeding water. Adult flying mosquitoes frequently rest in a tunnel that they build right below the roots of the grass.

Adult mosquitoes usually mate within a few days after emerging from the pupal stage. In most species, the males form large swarms, usually around dusk, and the females fly into the swarms to mate.

Males live for about a week, feeding on nectar and other sources of sugar. Females will also feed on sugar sources for energy but usually require a blood meal for the development of eggs. After obtaining a full blood meal, the female will rest for a few days while the blood is digested and eggs are developed. This process depends on the temperature but usually takes 2–3 days in tropical conditions. Once the eggs are fully developed, the female lays them and resumes host seeking.

The cycle repeats itself until the female dies. While females can live longer than a month in captivity, most do not live longer than 1–2 weeks in nature. Their lifespan depends on temperature, humidity, and also their ability to successfully obtain a blood meal while avoiding host defenses.

Length of the adult varies but is rarely greater than 16 mm (0.6 in)^[5], and weigh up to 2.5 mg (0.04 grain). All mosquitoes have slender bodies with three sections: head, thorax and abdomen.

The head is specialized for acquiring sensory information and for feeding. The head contains the eyes and a pair of long, many-segmented antennae. The antennae are important for detecting host odors as well as odors of breeding sites where females lay eggs. In all mosquito species, the antennae of the males in comparison to the females are noticeably bushier and contain auditory receptors to detect the characteristic whine of the female. The compound eyes are distinctly separated from one another. Their larvae only possess a pit-eye ocellus. The compound eyes of adults develop in a separate region of the head.^[6] New ommatidia are added in semicircular rows at the rear of the eye; during the first phase of growth, this leads to individual ommatidia being square, but later in development they become hexagonal. The hexagonal pattern will only become visible when the carapace of the stage with square eyes is molted.^[6] The head also has an elongated, forward-projecting “stinger-like” proboscis used for feeding, and two sensory palps. The maxillary palps of the males are longer than their proboscis whereas the females’ maxillary palps are much shorter. (This is typical for representatives of subfamilies.) As with many members of the mosquito family, the female is equipped with an elongated proboscis that she uses to collect blood to feed her eggs.

The thorax is specialized for locomotion. Three pairs of legs and a pair of wings are attached to the thorax. The insect wing is an outgrowth of the exoskeleton. The Anopheles mosquito can fly for up to four hours continuously at up to 1–2 km/h^[7] travelling up to 12 km (7.5 mi) in a night.

The abdomen is specialized for food digestion and egg development. This segmented body part expands considerably when a female takes a blood meal. The blood is digested over time serving as a source of protein for the production of eggs, which gradually fill the abdomen.

The duration from egg to adult varies considerably among species and is strongly influenced by ambient temperature. Mosquitoes can develop from egg to adult in as little as five days but usually take 10–14 days in tropical conditions. The variation of the body size in adult mosquitoes depends on the density of the larval population and food supply within the breeding water. Adult flying mosquitoes frequently rest in a tunnel that they build right below the roots of the grass.

Adult mosquitoes usually mate within a few days after emerging from the pupal stage. In most species, the males form large swarms, usually around dusk, and the females fly into the swarms to mate.

Males live for about a week, feeding on nectar and other sources of sugar. Females will also feed on sugar sources for energy but usually require a blood meal for the development of eggs. After obtaining a full blood meal, the female will rest for a few days while the blood is digested and eggs are developed. This process depends on the temperature but usually takes 2–3 days in tropical conditions. Once the eggs are fully developed, the female lays them and resumes host seeking.

The cycle repeats itself until the female dies. While females can live longer than a month in captivity, most do not live longer than 1–2 weeks in nature. Their lifespan depends on temperature, humidity, and also their ability to successfully obtain a blood meal while avoiding host defenses.

Length of the adult varies but is rarely greater than 16 mm (0.6 in)^[5], and weigh up to 2.5 mg (0.04 grain). All mosquitoes have slender bodies with three sections: head, thorax and abdomen.

The head is specialized for acquiring sensory information and for feeding. The head contains the eyes and a pair of long, many-segmented antennae. The antennae are important for detecting host odors as well as odors of breeding sites where females lay eggs. In all mosquito species, the antennae of the males in comparison to the females are noticeably bushier and contain auditory receptors to detect the characteristic whine of the female. The compound eyes are distinctly separated from one another. Their larvae only possess a pit-eye ocellus. The compound eyes of adults develop in a separate region of the head.^[6] New ommatidia are added in semicircular rows at the rear of the eye; during the first phase of growth, this leads to individual ommatidia being square, but later in development they become hexagonal. The hexagonal pattern will only become visible when the carapace of the stage with square eyes is molted.^[6] The head also has an elongated, forward-projecting “stinger-like” proboscis used for feeding, and two sensory palps. The maxillary palps of the males are longer than their proboscis whereas the females’ maxillary palps are much shorter. (This is typical for representatives of subfamilies.) As with many members of the mosquito family, the female is equipped with an elongated proboscis that she uses to collect blood to feed her eggs.

The thorax is specialized for locomotion. Three pairs of legs and a pair of wings are attached to the thorax. The insect wing is an outgrowth of the exoskeleton. The Anopheles mosquito can fly for up to four hours continuously at up to 1–2 km/h^[7] travelling up to 12 km (7.5 mi) in a night.

The abdomen is specialized for food digestion and egg development. This segmented body part expands considerably when a female takes a blood meal. The blood is digested over time serving as a source of protein for the production of eggs, which gradually fill the abdomen.

In order for the mosquito to obtain a blood meal it must surmount the vertebrate physiological responses. The mosquito, as with all blood-feeding arthropods, has mechanisms to effectively block the hemostasis system with their saliva, which contains a mixture of secreted proteins. Mosquito saliva negatively affects vascular constriction, blood clotting, platelet aggregation, angiogenesis and immunity and creates inflammation.^[12] Universally, hematophagous arthropod saliva contains at least one anticlotting, one anti-platelet, and one vasodilatory substance. Mosquito saliva also contains enzymes that aid in sugar feeding^[13] and antimicrobial agents to control bacterial growth in the sugar meal.^[14] The composition of mosquito saliva is relatively simple as it usually contains fewer than 20 dominant proteins.^[15] Despite the great strides in knowledge of these molecules and their role in bloodfeeding achieved recently, scientists still cannot ascribe functions to more than half of the molecules found in arthropod saliva.^[15] One promising application is the development of anti-clotting drugs based on saliva molecules, which might be useful for approaching heart-related disease, because they are more user-friendly blood clotting inhibitors and capillary dilators.^[16]

It is now well recognized that the feeding ticks, sandflies, and, more recently, mosquitoes have an ability to modulate the immune response of the animals (hosts) they feed on.^[12] The presence of this activity in vector saliva is a reflection of the inherent overlapping and interconnected nature of the host hemostatic and inflammatory/immunological responses and the intrinsic need to prevent these host defenses from disrupting successful feeding. The mechanism for mosquito saliva-induced alteration of the host immune response is unclear, but the data has become increasingly convincing that such an effect occurs. Early work described a factor in saliva that directly suppresses TNF-α release, but not antigen-induced histamine secretion, from activated mast cells.^[17] Experiments by Cross et al. (1994) demonstrated that the inclusion of Ae. aegypti mosquito saliva into naïve cultures led to a suppression of interleukin (IL)-2 and IFN-γ production, while the cytokines IL-4 and IL-5 are unaffected by mosquito saliva.^[18] Cellular proliferation in response to IL-2 is clearly reduced by prior treatment of cells with SGE.^[18] Correspondingly, activated splenocytes isolated from mice fed upon by either Ae. aegypti or Cx. pipiens mosquitoes produce markedly higher levels of IL-4 and IL-10 concurrent with suppressed IFN-γ production.^[19] Unexpectedly, this shift in cytokine expression is observed in splenocytes up to 10 days after mosquito exposure, suggesting that natural feeding of mosquitoes can have a profound, enduring, and systemic effect on the immune response.^[19]

T cell populations are decidedly susceptible to the suppressive effect of mosquito saliva, showing enhanced mortality and decreased division rates.^[20] Parallel work by Wasserman et al. (2004) demonstrated that T- and B-cell proliferation was inhibited in a dose dependent manner with concentrations as low as 1/7th of the saliva in a single mosquito.^[21] Depinay et al. (2005) observed a suppression of antibody-specific T cell responses mediated by mosquito saliva and dependent on mast cells and IL-10 expression.^[22] A recent study suggests that mosquito saliva can also decrease expression of interferon−α/β during early mosquito-borne virus infection.^[23] The contribution of type I interferons (IFN) in recovery from infection with viruses has been demonstrated in vivo by the therapeutic and prophylactic effects of administration of IFN-inducers or IFN,^[24] and recent research suggests that mosquito saliva exacerbates West Nile virus infection,^[25] as well as other mosquito-transmitted viruses.^[26]

In order for the mosquito to obtain a blood meal it must surmount the vertebrate physiological responses. The mosquito, as with all blood-feeding arthropods, has mechanisms to effectively block the hemostasis system with their saliva, which contains a mixture of secreted proteins. Mosquito saliva negatively affects vascular constriction, blood clotting, platelet aggregation, angiogenesis and immunity and creates inflammation.^[12] Universally, hematophagous arthropod saliva contains at least one anticlotting, one anti-platelet, and one vasodilatory substance. Mosquito saliva also contains enzymes that aid in sugar feeding^[13] and antimicrobial agents to control bacterial growth in the sugar meal.^[14] The composition of mosquito saliva is relatively simple as it usually contains fewer than 20 dominant proteins.^[15] Despite the great strides in knowledge of these molecules and their role in bloodfeeding achieved recently, scientists still cannot ascribe functions to more than half of the molecules found in arthropod saliva.^[15] One promising application is the development of anti-clotting drugs based on saliva molecules, which might be useful for approaching heart-related disease, because they are more user-friendly blood clotting inhibitors and capillary dilators.^[16]

It is now well recognized that the feeding ticks, sandflies, and, more recently, mosquitoes have an ability to modulate the immune response of the animals (hosts) they feed on.^[12] The presence of this activity in vector saliva is a reflection of the inherent overlapping and interconnected nature of the host hemostatic and inflammatory/immunological responses and the intrinsic need to prevent these host defenses from disrupting successful feeding. The mechanism for mosquito saliva-induced alteration of the host immune response is unclear, but the data has become increasingly convincing that such an effect occurs. Early work described a factor in saliva that directly suppresses TNF-α release, but not antigen-induced histamine secretion, from activated mast cells.^[17] Experiments by Cross et al. (1994) demonstrated that the inclusion of Ae. aegypti mosquito saliva into naïve cultures led to a suppression of interleukin (IL)-2 and IFN-γ production, while the cytokines IL-4 and IL-5 are unaffected by mosquito saliva.^[18] Cellular proliferation in response to IL-2 is clearly reduced by prior treatment of cells with SGE.^[18] Correspondingly, activated splenocytes isolated from mice fed upon by either Ae. aegypti or Cx. pipiens mosquitoes produce markedly higher levels of IL-4 and IL-10 concurrent with suppressed IFN-γ production.^[19] Unexpectedly, this shift in cytokine expression is observed in splenocytes up to 10 days after mosquito exposure, suggesting that natural feeding of mosquitoes can have a profound, enduring, and systemic effect on the immune response.^[19]

T cell populations are decidedly susceptible to the suppressive effect of mosquito saliva, showing enhanced mortality and decreased division rates.^[20] Parallel work by Wasserman et al. (2004) demonstrated that T- and B-cell proliferation was inhibited in a dose dependent manner with concentrations as low as 1/7th of the saliva in a single mosquito.^[21] Depinay et al. (2005) observed a suppression of antibody-specific T cell responses mediated by mosquito saliva and dependent on mast cells and IL-10 expression.^[22] A recent study suggests that mosquito saliva can also decrease expression of interferon−α/β during early mosquito-borne virus infection.^[23] The contribution of type I interferons (IFN) in recovery from infection with viruses has been demonstrated in vivo by the therapeutic and prophylactic effects of administration of IFN-inducers or IFN,^[24] and recent research suggests that mosquito saliva exacerbates West Nile virus infection,^[25] as well as other mosquito-transmitted viruses.^[26]

Two important events in the life of female mosquitoes are egg development and blood digestion. After taking a blood meal the midgut of the female synthesizes proteolytic enzymes that hydrolyze the blood proteins into free amino acids. These are used as building blocks for the synthesis of egg yolk proteins.

In the mosquito Anopheles stephensi Liston, trypsin activity is restricted entirely to the posterior midgut lumen. No trypsin activity occurs before the blood meal, but activity increases continuously up to 30 hours after feeding, and subsequently returns to baseline levels by 60 hours. Aminopeptidase is active in the anterior and posterior midgut regions before and after feeding. In the whole midgut, activity rises from a baseline of approximately 3 enzyme units (EU) per midgut to a maximum of 12 EU at 30 hours after the blood meal, subsequently falling to baseline levels by 60 hours. A similar cycle of activity occurs in the posterior midgut and posterior midgut lumen, whereas aminopeptidase in the posterior midgut epithelium decreases in activity during digestion. Aminopeptidase in the anterior midgut is maintained at a constant low level, showing no significant variation with time after feeding. alpha-glucosidase is active in anterior and posterior midguts before and at all times after feeding. In whole midgut homogenates, alpha-glucosidase activity increases slowly up to 18 hours after the blood meal, then rises rapidly to a maximum at 30 hours after the blood meal, whereas the subsequent decline in activity is less predictable. All posterior midgut activity is restricted to the posterior midgut lumen. Depending upon the time after feeding, greater than 25% of the total midgut activity of alpha-glucosidase is located in the anterior midgut. After blood meal ingestion, proteases are active only in the posterior midgut. Trypsin is the major primary hydrolytic protease and is secreted into the posterior midgut lumen without activation in the posterior midgut epithelium. Aminopeptidase activity is also luminal in the posterior midgut, but cellular aminopeptidases are required for peptide processing in both anterior and posterior midguts. Alpha-glucosidase activity is elevated in the posterior midgut after feeding in response to the blood meal, whereas activity in the anterior midgut is consistent with a nectar-processing role for this midgut region.^[27]

Mosquitoes are a vector agent that carries disease-causing viruses and parasites from person to person without catching the disease themselves.

The principal mosquito borne diseases are the viral diseases yellow fever and dengue fever, transmitted mostly by the Aedes aegypti, and malaria carried by the genus Anopheles. Though originally a public health concern, HIV is now thought to be almost impossible for mosquitoes to transmit^[31].

Mosquitoes are estimated to transmit disease to more than 700 million people annually in Africa, South America, Central America, Mexico and much of Asia with millions of resulting deaths. At least 2 million people annually die of these diseases.

Methods used to prevent the spread of disease, or to protect individuals in areas where disease is endemic include Vector control aimed at mosquito eradication, disease prevention, using prophylactic drugs and developing vaccines and prevention of mosquito bites, with insecticides, nets and repellents. Since most such diseases are carried by “elderly” females, scientists have suggested focusing on these to avoid the evolution of resistance^[32]

Mosquitoes are a vector agent that carries disease-causing viruses and parasites from person to person without catching the disease themselves.

The principal mosquito borne diseases are the viral diseases yellow fever and dengue fever, transmitted mostly by the Aedes aegypti, and malaria carried by the genus Anopheles. Though originally a public health concern, HIV is now thought to be almost impossible for mosquitoes to transmit^[31].

Mosquitoes are estimated to transmit disease to more than 700 million people annually in Africa, South America, Central America, Mexico and much of Asia with millions of resulting deaths. At least 2 million people annually die of these diseases.

Methods used to prevent the spread of disease, or to protect individuals in areas where disease is endemic include Vector control aimed at mosquito eradication, disease prevention, using prophylactic drugs and developing vaccines and prevention of mosquito bites, with insecticides, nets and repellents. Since most such diseases are carried by “elderly” females, scientists have suggested focusing on these to avoid the evolution of resistance^[32]

This week’s De Smet News reveals that just last month a brand new Mosquito breed was found in South Dakota. The new species is Aedes japonicus, popularly known as the Japanese rock pool mosquito or the Asian bush mosquito. The fun part of these is that unlike their fellow mosquitoes, who mostly bite at night or in the evening, these feed during the day. So pack your bug spray for your next Laura trip.

Things My Dog Will Bark At To Save My Life

Graph by: silletta via Graph Jam Builder

No me he complicado mucho la vida, hoy no ha habido mejunjes. He desayunado fruta cortada (melón, piña, bananas y naranja) y galletas tipo María con un batido de chocolate muy bueno de la marca Toddynho, ideal para niños en edad de crecimiento como yo.

Aquí ha hecho un día medio lluvia, medio sol. Durante el momento de sol he ido a la Praia do Amor y durante la lluvia me he bañado en la piscina. Creo que nací para tener piscina, no sé qué error se produjo en algún momento que me impide tener una. Al volver a casa me he encontrado con unas cuantas hormigas corriendo por el teclado de mi ordenador (ahora mismo hay una cruzando la pantalla). No sé si es el calor de la máquina o que les gusta el saborcito que dejan en mis dedos sobre las teclas.

Me llevo bien con algunos de los animales de la zona, pero otros los quiero bien lejos:

- Hormigas: pueden entrar al Arca de jajo siempre que tengan unas dimensiones europeas y sean de color negro. También es importante que no vayan a la cocina. Hormiga que intente pasear por la encimera, hormiga que aniquilaré sin dudas ni temblores de manos.

- Moscas y mosquitos: pueden pasar. Los mosquitos de aquí no se sienten atraídos por mi ph por tanto no molestan. Independientemente de esto, duermo con mosquitera.

- Polillas: todo insecto que se acerque tanto a la luz como para chamuscarse o atontarse y caer en vuelo espiral al suelo no merece mis respetos. Además cuando te rozan sus alas es un poco asqueroso. Las polillas no son bienvenidas al Arca.

-Mantis religiosas: por más buenas que sean para el ecosistema, no las acepto ni tolero. Chute de Raid y caída perpendicular.

- Bichos con alas no voladores: hay que desconfiar. Si tienen alas y no las usan algo pasa. Muerte a todos los bichos con alas no voladores. Lamentablemente, tenemos que incluir a las gallinas en este apartado.

- Insectos voladores a parte de los mencionados: todo bicho que tenga forma o consistencia de helicóptero militar, sea negro o marrón, con medidas fuera de lo común, con o sin aguijón, reciben una muerta inmediata. Hay animales extrañísimos, que parecen insectos normales pero multiplicados  por ocho. Fuera del Arca.

- Lagartos y lagartijas: sois bienvenidos. Hasta ahora ninguno ha intentado cruzar la puerta de casa, mientras siga así nos vamos a llevar muy bien por las aceras y jardines.

- Dragones: bienvenidos también. Les permito entrar en casa porque son mis grandes aliados contra las polillas y bichos de esa medida. Cada noche, cuando veo Perdidos, me acompañan discretamente y van cenando lo que pillan.

- Sapos: sólo tolero al mío siempre que se mantenga en su sitio. Se mueve en un radio de tres metros desde su madriguera (¿o sapiguera?). Mientras sea así perfecto, aparecer a mi lado mientras estoy leyendo no está aceptado por las normas del Arca de jajo.

- Ratón de campo: por más que me digan que los hay en esta zona, no me lo creo. Para mí son mini timbús, y al punto siguiente me remito.

- Timbú: no me gusta nada de nada, sólo lo tolero porque nunca ha intentado entrar en casa. Un timbú es una zarigüeya, un bicho que podéis ver en Ice Age en una versión un poco antropomórfica. Su deporte favorito es entrar en los corrales y chuparles la sangre a las gallinas. Como aquí no hay gallinas se comen las bananas del jardín. Fuera del Arca a la de ya.

- Delfines: bienvenidos son, mientras estén a 5 metros de distancia, aunque eso depende más de mí que de ellos.

- Monos: por supuesto pueden entrar al Arca, faltaría más. Son lo más simpático que hay en Pipa. Ya he visto a uno y me ha saludado amablemente. Creo que se acuerda de mí de otras veces.

- Pájaros inteligentes: más que bienvenidos, independientemente de sus colores o medidas.

- Pájaros gilipollas: todo animal que se estrella contra un cristal repetidamente no merece mis respetos.

- Moscardones de metro ochenta: fuera del Arca sin explicaciones.

Las fotos que he podido hacer de animales son malas porque mis únicas armas son mi móvil y mi pulso, así que se aceptan críticas pero no aseguro escucharlas.

Suena I’m your man de Leonard Cohen, y sin duda I’m his man. Gracias a todos los que me estáis mandando canciones.

Clean water is essential at all times for your pets.  Water that is left to continuously flow into a drinking vessel for your animals can encourage algae to grow and mosquito larvae to breed. Water containers should be washed out and fresh water added on a regular basis otherwise you pet is ingesting these nasties

My brekkie consisted of a Swedish buffet, apparently. It looked like a continental breakfast to me, but it was a bloomin’ good one.

As I will be back in Western Europe soon prices will be a risin’, so it’s necessary for me to start making concessions when and where appropriate. An easy one is to demolish any breakfast with the word free before it to avoid paying for that meal and also making only a snack required for the following one.

So that being said I had 2 large slices of bread with jam, 2 slightly mini (but not on taste!) chocolate croissants, 2 slices of bog standard buffet cheese, a slices of bog standard buffet ham, 4 slices of bog standard buffet salami, a Dairylea like triangle of cheese, a bowl of cereal and a glass of orange juice. My lunch will be a tin of tuna I smuggled out. That’s cricket mate.

I’m feeling a bit zombie like this morning as by the time I checked in and got to bed last night it only left me with 3 or 4 hours kip time. I’m in a positive mood though so will plough on regardless and get out and see what Podgorica is all about before getting a bus to Kotor this eve (though I need to get back down the station and figure that out).

So what’s Podgorica like? Not got a clue. No sooner was I ready to leave and have a butchers than an almighty storm had broken out. I borrowed an unmbrella to go back to the bus station to get money to pay for hotel (you have to pay cash to get the discount) and I still got completely soaked in a matter of minutes. From the look of the sky it’s going to be here for the duration so there’s not really anything to do but get outta town. I would stay another night but I can’t justify another €55. A shame eh.

If this was to happen anywhere Podgorica is probably the best place. I certainly can’t make a full judgement on the place from what I’ve seen, but from what little I have (and have read and heard from others) it looks like there isn’t too much going on anyway.

The buses are pretty much every hour and it’s 20 past 12, so I’ve bought a ticket for the 14:23 to give me a couple of hours to sort some things out on the internet in the hotel.

I do hope the weather in Kotor is improved, it’s only 2 hours away though so I’m not holding my breath. I’ve got 2 night’s there though so hopefully the weather will be okay tomorrow at least.

On route to Kotar we passed through Budva and the coast of the town (which I got a view of from the surrounding mountains before entering it) looks beautiful, I expect likewise from my destination.

There now and the weather still looks a bit humpty but it has stopped chucking it down for now at least. Let’s go and find the hostel then.

Kotor is lovely. A pretty little old town surrounded by the sea one side and mountains on the other. No sooner has it stopped than It’s pouring down again, I hope it subsides in the morning as I’m really looking forward to exploring.

The hostel seems okay too though it is inundated with mosquitos. I’m all repelled up this time though and have already killed 2 of the sods with my shoe, payback.

I’ve just handed over €2 to have my washing done, much needed I can tell thee. This means I’m going to have to squat round here for the next 4 hours or so though unless I fancy a walk about in the rain in my shorts.

It will give me time to try and figure out my transport to Tirana at least. There’s no direct bus, I think it might involve 2 or 3 changes but trying to find out the schedules beyond the first bus is pretty much an impossibility. I might be best going back to Podgorica and trying to get a train from there maybe. At worst I’ll just have to get the bus to Ulcinj (which is the furthest point I can get a bus to in the right direction) and then if I’ve missed whatever connection I need I’ll just have to try and find accommodation there. Cripes.

I know it’s Saturday but i will likely take it easy tonight, I am operating on 3 and a half hours after all. Maybe just a few cans or somet.

Crystal Stilts ‘Alight of Night’ is the album I’ve been listening to today. Okay it’s not particularly original, but who cares, it sounds great. Lots of fuzz, lots of distortion, lots of wall of sound type stuff, lots of miserablist fun. Super I say.

The rain eased off eventually so I ventured out to get some supplies in. On my return I still couldn’t get WiFi access (I hadn’t been able to since I arrived) so I asked the fella working here if he could reboot the router, christ he’s a miserable sod. I wasn’t impressed with his aloofness and lack of info offering at check-in, you get more words out of this guy. Anyway router, he was just like “It works for me”. This lead me to suspect the DHCP server on the router wasn’t working (a reboot would likely fix!) so I went down the static route and asked to quickly check the settings on his laptop, grudgingly he let me and a minute later I had WiFi. Apologies for the tech mumbo jumbo, but the point was that the guy wasn’t very friendly and made things more difficult than need be. Poor staff rating on Hostel World I reckon.

Would anyone like to hazard a guess how much dosh I’ve accrued from Google AdSense on the Lonely Planet pages so far? Closest to gets a KitKat chunky courtesy of moi.

That reminds me of a KitKat related joke:

Gerald is feeling peckish and goes to a 24 hour garage late at night, he says to the girl at the window “Get me a KitKat chunky”.

The girl twoddles off and returns with a KitKat chunky.

“What the hell’s this, I wanted a traditional standard KitKat you fat cow” says Gerald.

Oh dear. Claire Roberts told me that, blame her.

I’m now sat roun waiting for my washing and wanting to get some kip. The girl said 3 hours and we’re on 5 now. Mr personality is at the controls so I think he’s doing his best to extend my misery. Goit.

Montenegro brings us up to country number 20, if you include Transinistra (which I do). Well there you go eh.

Favourite search this time round, ‘the north face vespa backpack’. Wowzers, I’d be interested in that myself!

Lastly, I like this.

PS The photo is actually from Sofia, I did take a few of Kotor but none came out up to scratch.

At about 2 in the morning I finally managed to find and book a hotel for Podgorica, I had to ring them as it said there was no availability online.

It costs €55 (and that’s the cheapest in town) which is a bit annoying as that’s not far off a week’s worth of hostels but I didn’t really have any other choice. There’s only one hostel there as I’ve mentioned earlier and that has an 11pm curfew (one of many daft rules they implement) which is no good to me when my bus won’t get in until well after midnight.

At least the hotel is right near the bus station apparently, so I’m not going to have to faff about with directions or taxis.

Podgorica isn’t actually supposed to be that good but I like to see a country’s capital city and I don’t think I could have got to Kotor (near the Montenegro coast line) direct from here anyway. I’m looking forward to Kotor, it should be a chance to relax after what’s been quite a hectic few weeks.

Bloody hell, how annoying. I just had to hand over €4 (which lets face it, is pretty much 4 quid these days) to ‘The Professor’ at checkout as I’d borrowed one of the city guides and left it in the bus station while rushing about yesterday. It’s only a crappy small magazine, one that in most cities would be free, so I thought he was trying it on at first (and maybe he was and did get them free or cheap, I can’t have seen him forking out €80 for 20 as he said) but it does say in tiny letters on the front €4. This is fastly turning in to an expensive week.

I just stopped for a lunch time pint at a place where I saw there was a wireless network and before ordering I asked if it was their’s and the barman confirmed it. Then after I’ve got the pint of Peja they give me the password which is wrong and it transpires they don’t know the right one, great. I wanted to stock up on my podcasts for my imminent 7 hour bus journey. I guess I’ll just have to find another pub, oh the hardship.

I know I’ve not said much about Pristina as there isn’t really much to say, it’s not done anything for me. To be fair it is a city in what is in effect a new country which is changing fairly rapidly so in another 5 years who knows what it will be like.

The only thing I can think to mention is that Bill Clinton appears to be pretty big over here, streets and shops named after him and bill-boards (geddit?) with his swede plastered on. The Kosovan government even subsidises the cost of cigars. I presume all of this is because he was the American commander-in-chief when NATO bombed Serbia to get them off Kosovo’s back.

The mozsters got me again (8 bites is the count) as I forgot to apply the repellent last night, blighters to the end they are.

I just had a very early tea at XIX only 90 minutes after my lunch as I had to fit it in before my bus ride. It was my first ‘Full English’ in 2 months and it was ruddy gorge’.

Crikey, I’m dying for a haircut but with still the best part of 2 months to go I’m likely to look like Pat Sharp on my return.

On the bus now, goodo. I just got a bottle of water and a bag of crisps before embarking and the shopkeeper said to me “Where you from?”, “Manchester” was my obvious reply. “Wayne Rooney!”. “No, Carlos Tevez”. “Ah, Manchester City”. That’s more like it fella.

Oh boy this is going to be a long journey. They’ve just switched the ‘entertainment’ on. Some DVD of people (Albanians I think) singing and dancing to that awful tuneless Turkish sort of music. It’s penetrating and therefore ruining my Mayo and Kermode (though he’s not on it this week as he has swiney) weekly film reviews podcast.

I’d honestly rather listen to drum ‘n bass than this, it’s the most horrific sort of music on the planet and every ruddy song is exactly the same. I could make a killing (pun intended) selling cyanide capsules to fellow passengers.

I’m going to have to switch to something louder to drown out this assault on the ears out. Cue my thoughts on Beirut’s ‘March of the Zapotec and Realpeople Holland’. Well it’s almost a companion piece to their first album ‘The Gulag Orkestar’ with the powerful horn section and graceful synths present again. I really like it but it’s not quite at the standard of Gulag (granted, a very high standard that was), I’ll need to download the album imbetween now.

Over 2 and a half hours in and that stuff on the box is still going, they’ve turned it down a fair bit now though so I can bare it. Oddly, currently on screen is a tall and skinny Albanian man in a suit who is a great lookey likey for Matthew Kelly.

On the way out of Kosovo the customs man who boarded the bus was looking for my inbound stamp, I knew I should have got one when coming from Macedonia. Luckily he just gave it me back and that was that.

Very strangely there was no Montenegro customs at all, that’s a new one on me. Another stamp goes begging. I’m telling ya, it’s an international conspiracy to deprive me of the travelling badges of honour that are righly mine.

Actually I take it back, there is a Montenegro customs, but it’s a good 5 miles I reckon from the Kosovan border. That’s a new one on me. Got a stamp though, whoo!

They’ve turned the sound back up. Boo.

Well it’s gone over 7 hours and still no Podgorica. I don’t think it’s helped that the driver has stopped for ages loads. I hope we get there soon, I’m dying to collapse in my bed. The good thing is that my hotel is supposed to be 200 metres from the station.

Also, I’ve just yawned and my ears have popped. That’s made the travesty of sound even louder. Not pleased.

Another bleedin’ stop. The driver has the bladder of an infant guinea pig. Onwards I say, onwards!

This is ridiculous. This numpty has more breaks than a Spanish builder, they last ages and ages too. I’m not sure what I hate him more for, his music taste or his laziness. Nearly half 1 in the morning, I’m not going to get very long for my €55.

I’m finally there readers, thank Jehova.

The hotel is really nice, 10% off with my ISIC too which will save me a fiver. Night.