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ASIMO, a humanoid robot manufactured by Honda

A robot is a virtual or mechanical artificial agent. In practice, it is usually an electro-mechanical machine which is guided by computer or electronic programming, and is thus able to do tasks on its own. Another common characteristic is that by its appearance or movements, a robot often conveys a sense that it has intent or agency of its own.

Definitions

 

A laparoscopic robotic surgery machine

The word robot can refer to both physical robots and virtual software agents, but the latter are usually referred to as bots.^[1] There is no consensus on which machines qualify as robots, but there is general agreement among experts and the public that robots tend to do some or all of the following: move around, operate a mechanical limb, sense and manipulate their environment, and exhibit intelligent behavior, especially behavior which mimics humans or other animals.

There is conflict about whether the term can be applied to remotely operated devices, as the most common usage implies, or solely to devices which are controlled by their software without human intervention. In South Africa, robot is an informal and commonly used term for a set of traffic lights.

Stories of artificial helpers and companions and attempts to create them have a long history but fully autonomous machines only appeared in the 20th century. The first digitally operated and programmable robot, the Unimate, was installed in 1961 to lift hot pieces of metal from a die casting machine and stack them. Today, commercial and industrial robots are in widespread use performing jobs more cheaply or with greater accuracy and reliability than humans. They are also employed for jobs which are too dirty, dangerous or dull to be suitable for humans. Robots are widely used in manufacturing, assembly and packing, transport, earth and space exploration, surgery, weaponry, laboratory research, and mass production of consumer and industrial goods.^[2]

It is difficult to compare numbers of robots in different countries, since there are different definitions of what a “robot” is. The International Organization for Standardization gives a definition of robot in ISO 8373: “an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multipurpose, manipulator programmable in three or more axes, which may be either fixed in place or mobile for use in industrial automation applications.”^[3] This definition is used by the International Federation of Robotics, the European Robotics Research Network (EURON), and many national standards committees.^[4]

The Robotics Institute of America (RIA) uses a broader definition: a robot is a “re-programmable multi-functional manipulator designed to move materials, parts, tools, or specialized devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks.”^[5] The RIA subdivides robots into four classes: devices that manipulate objects with manual control, automated devices that manipulate objects with predetermined cycles, programmable and servo-controlled robots with continuous point-to-point trajectories, and robots of this last type which also acquire information from the environment and move intelligently in response.

There is no one definition of robot which satisfies everyone, and many people have their own.^[6] For example, Joseph Engelberger, a pioneer in industrial robotics, once remarked: “I can’t define a robot, but I know one when I see one.”^[7] According to Encyclopaedia Britannica, a robot is “any automatically operated machine that replaces human effort, though it may not resemble human beings in appearance or perform functions in a humanlike manner”.^[8] Merriam-Webster describes a robot as a “machine that looks like a human being and performs various complex acts (as walking or talking) of a human being”, or a “device that automatically performs complicated often repetitive tasks”, or a “mechanism guided by automatic controls”.^[9]

Modern robots are usually used in tightly controlled environments such as on assembly lines because they have difficulty responding to unexpected interference. Because of this, most humans rarely encounter robots. However, domestic robots for cleaning and maintenance are increasingly common in and around homes in developed countries, particularly in Japan. Robots can also be found in the military.

Defining characteristics

KITT is mentally anthropomorphic, while ASIMO is physically anthropomorphic

While there is no single correct definition of “robot,”^[10] a typical robot will have several, or possibly all, of the following characteristics.

It is an electric machine which has some ability to interact with physical objects and to be given electronic programming to do a specific task or to do a whole range of tasks or actions. It may also have some ability to perceive and absorb data on physical objects, or on its local physical environment, or to process data, or to respond to various stimuli. This is in contrast to a simple mechanical device such as a gear or a hydraulic press or any other item which has no processing ability and which does tasks through purely mechanical processes and motion.

Mental agency

For robotic engineers, the physical appearance of a machine is less important than the way its actions are controlled. The more the control system seems to have agency of its own, the more likely the machine is to be called a robot. An important feature of agency is the ability to make choices. Higher-level cognitive functions, though, are not necessary, as shown by ant robots.

• A clockwork car is never considered a robot.
• A remotely operated vehicle is sometimes considered a robot (or telerobot).^[11]
• A car with an onboard computer, like Bigtrak, which could drive in a programmable sequence, might be called a robot.
• A self-controlled car which could sense its environment and make driving decisions based on this information, such as the 1990s driverless cars of Ernst Dickmanns or the entries in the DARPA Grand Challenge, would quite likely be called a robot.
• A sentient car, like the fictional KITT, which can make decisions, navigate freely and converse fluently with a human, is usually considered a robot.

Physical agency

However, for many laymen, if a machine appears to be able to control its arms or limbs, and especially if it appears anthropomorphic or zoomorphic (e.g. ASIMO or Aibo), it would be called a robot.

• A player piano is rarely characterized as a robot.^[12]
• A CNC milling machine is very occasionally characterized as a robot.
• A factory automation arm is almost always characterized as an industrial robot.
• An autonomous wheeled or tracked device, such as a self-guided rover or self-guided vehicle, is almost always characterized as a mobile robot or service robot.
• A zoomorphic mechanical toy, like Roboraptor, is usually characterized as a robot.^[13]
• A mechanical humanoid, like ASIMO, is almost always characterized as a robot, usually as a service robot.

Even for a 3-axis CNC milling machine using the same control system as a robot arm, it is the arm which is almost always called a robot, while the CNC machine is usually just a machine. Having eyes can also make a difference in whether a machine is called a robot, since humans instinctively connect eyes with sentience. However, simply being anthropomorphic is not a sufficient criterion for something to be called a robot. A robot must do something; an inanimate object shaped like ASIMO would not be considered a robot.

Etymology

 

A scene from Karel Čapek’s 1920 play R.U.R. (Rossum’s Universal Robots), showing three robots

The word robot was introduced to the public by Czech writer Karel Čapek in his play R.U.R. (Rossum’s Universal Robots), published in 1920.^[14] The play begins in a factory that makes artificial people called robots, but they are closer to the modern ideas of androids, creatures who can be mistaken for humans. They can plainly think for themselves, though they seem happy to serve. At issue is whether the robots are being exploited and the consequences of their treatment.

However, Karel Čapek himself did not coin the word. He wrote a short letter in reference to an etymology in the Oxford English Dictionary in which he named his brother, the painter and writer Josef Čapek, as its actual originator.^[14] In an article in the Czech journal Lidové noviny in 1933, he explained that he had originally wanted to call the creatures laboři (from Latin labor, work). However, he did not like the word, and sought advice from his brother Josef, who suggested “roboti”. The word robota means literally work, labor or serf labor, and figuratively “drudgery” or “hard work” in Czech and many Slavic languages. Traditionally the robota was the work period a serf had to give for his lord, typically 6 months of the year.^[15] Serfdom was outlawed in 1848 in Bohemia, so at the time Čapek wrote R.U.R., usage of the term robota had broadened to include various types of work, but the obsolete sense of “serfdom” would still have been known.^[16][17]

The word robotics, used to describe this field of study, was coined (albeit accidentally) by the science fiction writer Isaac Asimov.

Social impact

As robots have become more advanced and sophisticated, experts and academics have increasingly explored the questions of what ethics might govern robots’ behavior,^[18] and whether robots might be able to claim any kind of social, cultural, ethical or legal rights.^[19] One scientific team has said that it is possible that a robot brain will exist by 2019.^[20] Others predict robot intelligence breakthroughs by 2050.^[21] Recent advances have made robotic behavior more sophisticated.^[22]
Vernor Vinge has suggested that a moment may come when computers and robots are smarter than humans. He calls this “the Singularity.”^[23] He suggests that it may be somewhat or possibly very dangerous for humans.^[24] This is discussed by a philosophy called Singularitarianism.
In 2009, experts attended a conference to discuss whether computers and robots might be able to acquire any autonomy, and how much these abilities might pose a threat or hazard. They noted that some robots have acquired various forms of semi-autonomy, including being able to find power sources on their own and being able to independently choose targets to attack with weapons. They also noted that some computer viruses can evade elimination and have achieved “cockroach intelligence.” They noted that self-awareness as depicted in science-fiction is probably unlikely, but that there were other potential hazards and pitfalls.^[23] Various media sources and scientific groups have noted separate trends in differing areas which might together result in greater robotic functionalities and autonomy, and which pose some inherent concerns.^[25][26][27]

Some experts and academics have questioned the use of robots for military combat, especially when such robots are given some degree of autonomous functions.^[28] There are also concerns about technology which might allow some armed robots to be controlled mainly by other robots.^[29] The US Navy has funded a report which indicates that as military robots become more complex, there should be greater attention to implications of their ability to make autonomous decisions.^[30][31] Some public concerns about autonomous robots have received media attention, especially one robot, EATR, which can continually refuel itself using biomass and organic substances which it finds on battlefields or other local environments.^[32][33]
The Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence has studied this topic in depth ^[18] and its president has commissioned a study to look at this issue.^[34]

Some have suggested a need to build “Friendly AI“, meaning that the advances which are already occurring with AI should also include an effort to make AI intrinsically friendly and humane.^[35] Several such measures reportedly already exist, with robot-heavy countries such as Japan and South Korea ^[36] having begun to pass regulations requiring robots to be equipped with safety systems, and possibly sets of ‘laws’ akin to Asimov’s Three Laws of Robotics.^[37][38] An official report was issued in 2009 by the Japanese government’s Robot Industry Policy Committee.^[39] Chinese officials and researchers have issued a report suggesting a set of ethical rules, as well as a set of new legal guidelines referred to as “Robot Legal Studies.” ^[40] Some concern has been expressed over a possible occurrence of robots telling apparent falsehoods.^[41]

Technological trends

Technological development

Overall trends

Japan hopes to have full-scale commercialization of service robots by 2025. Much technological research in Japan is led by Japanese government agencies, particularly the Trade Ministry.^[42]

As robots become more advanced, eventually there may be a standard computer operating system designed mainly for robots. Robot Operating System (ROS) is an open-source set of programs being developed at Stanford University, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Technical University of Munich, Germany, among others. ROS provides ways to program a robot’s navigation and limbs regardless of the specific hardware involved. It also provides high-level commands for items like image recognition and even opening doors. When ROS boots up on a robot’s computer, it would obtain data on attributes such as the length and movement of robots’ limbs. It would relay this data to higher-level algorithms. Microsoft is also developing a “Windows for robots” system with its Robotics Developer Studio, which has been available since 2007.^[43]

New functions and abilities

The Caterpillar Company is making a dump truck which can drive itself without any human operator.^[44]

Research robots

While most robots today are installed in factories or homes, performing labour or life saving jobs, many new types of robot are being developed in laboratories around the world. Much of the research in robotics focuses not on specific industrial tasks, but on investigations into new types of robot, alternative ways to think about or design robots, and new ways to manufacture them. It is expected that these new types of robot will be able to solve real world problems when they are finally realized.^{[citation needed]}

 

A microfabricated electrostatic gripper holding some silicon nanowires.^[45]

• Nanorobots: Nanorobotics is the still largely hypothetical technology of creating machines or robots at or close to the scale of a nanometer (10⁻⁹ meters). Also known as nanobots or nanites, they would be constructed from molecular machines. So far, researchers have mostly produced only parts of these complex systems, such as bearings, sensors, and Synthetic molecular motors, but functioning robots have also been made such as the entrants to the Nanobot Robocup contest.^[46] Researchers also hope to be able to create entire robots as small as viruses or bacteria, which could perform tasks on a tiny scale. Possible applications include micro surgery (on the level of individual cells), utility fog,^[47] manufacturing, weaponry and cleaning.^[48] Some people have suggested that if there were nanobots which could reproduce, the earth would turn into “grey goo“, while others argue that this hypothetical outcome is nonsense.^[49][50]
• Soft Robots: Robots with silicone bodies and flexible actuators (air muscles, electroactive polymers, and ferrofluids), controlled using fuzzy logic and neural networks, look and feel different from robots with rigid skeletons, and are capable of different behaviors.^[51]
• Reconfigurable Robots: A few researchers have investigated the possibility of creating robots which can alter their physical form to suit a particular task,^[52] like the fictional T-1000. Real robots are nowhere near that sophisticated however, and mostly consist of a small number of cube shaped units, which can move relative to their neighbours, for example SuperBot. Algorithms have been designed in case any such robots become a reality.^[53]

 

A swarm of robots from the Open-source Micro-robotic Project

• Swarm robots: Inspired by colonies of insects such as ants and bees, researchers are modeling the behavior of swarms of thousands of tiny robots which together perform a useful task, such as finding something hidden, cleaning, or spying. Each robot is quite simple, but the emergent behavior of the swarm is more complex. The whole set of robots can be considered as one single distributed system, in the same way an ant colony can be considered a superorganism, exhibiting swarm intelligence. The largest swarms so far created include the iRobot swarm, the SRI/MobileRobots CentiBots project^[54] and the Open-source Micro-robotic Project swarm, which are being used to research collective behaviors.^[55][56] Swarms are also more resistant to failure. Whereas one large robot may fail and ruin a mission, a swarm can continue even if several robots fail. This could make them attractive for space exploration missions, where failure can be extremely costly.^[57]
• Haptic interface robots: Robotics also has application in the design of virtual reality interfaces. Specialized robots are in widespread use in the haptic research community. These robots, called “haptic interfaces,” allow touch-enabled user interaction with real and virtual environments. Robotic forces allow simulating the mechanical properties of “virtual” objects, which users can experience through their sense of touch.^[58] Haptic interfaces are also used in robot-aided rehabilitation.

Varying cultural perceptions

Roughly half of all the robots in the world are in Asia, 32% in Europe, and 16% in North America, 1% in Australasia and 1% in Africa.^[59] 30% of all the robots in the world are in Japan.^[60] This means that Japan has the most robots in the world out of all the countries, and is in fact leading the world’s robotics.^[61] Japan is actually said to be the robotic capital of the world.^[62]

In Japan and South Korea, ideas of future robots have been mainly positive, and the start of the pro-robotic society there is thought to be possibly due to the famous ‘Astro Boy‘. Asian societies such as Japan, South Korea, and more recently, China, believe robots to be more equal to humans, having them care for old people, play with or teach children, or replace pets etc.^[63] The general view in Asian cultures is that the more robots advance, the better, which is the opposite of the Western belief.

“This is the opening of an era in which human beings and robots can co-exist,” says Japanese firm Mitsubishi about one of the many humanistic robots in Japan.^[64] South Korea aims to put a robot in every house there by 2015-2020 in order to help catch up technologically with Japan.^[36][65]

Western societies are more likely to be against, or even fear the development of robotics, through much media output in movies and literature that they will replace humans. Some believe that the West regards robots as a ‘threat’ to the future of humans, partly due to religious beliefs about the role of humans and society.^[62][66] Obviously, these boundaries are not clear, but there is a significant difference between the two cultural viewpoints.

Contemporary uses

At present there are 2 main types of robots, based on their use: general-purpose autonomous robots and dedicated robots.

 

TOPIO, a humanoid robot developed by TOSY that can play ping-pong.^[67]

Robots can be classified by their specificity of purpose. A robot might be designed to perform one particular task extremely well, or a range of tasks less well. Of course, all robots by their nature can be re-programmed to behave differently, but some are limited by their physical form. For example, a factory robot arm can perform jobs such as cutting, welding, gluing, or acting as a fairground ride, while a pick-and-place robot can only populate printed circuit boards.

General-purpose autonomous robots

It has been suggested that Open-source robotics#Uses be merged into this article or section. (Discuss)

General-purpose autonomous robots are robots that can perform a variety of functions independently. General-purpose autonomous robots typically can navigate independently in known spaces, handle their own re-charging needs, interface with electronic doors and elevators and perform other basic tasks. Like computers, general-purpose robots can link with networks, software and accessories that increase their usefulness. They may recognize people or objects, talk, provide companionship, monitor environmental quality, respond to alarms, pick up supplies and perform other useful tasks. General-purpose robots may perform a variety of functions simultaneously or they may take on different roles at different times of day. Some such robots try to mimic human beings and may even resemble people in appearance; this type of robot is called a humanoid robot.

 

A general-purpose robot acts as a guide during the day and a security guard at night

Dedicated robots

In 2006, there were an estimated 3,540,000 service robots in use, and an estimated 950,000 industrial robots.^[68] A different estimate counted more than one million robots in operation worldwide in the first half of 2008, with roughly half in Asia, 32% in Europe, 16% in North America, 1% in Australasia and 1% in Africa.^[69] Industrial and service robots can be placed into roughly two classifications based on the type of job they do. The first category includes tasks which a robot can do with greater productivity, accuracy, or endurance than humans; the second category consists of dirty, dangerous or dull jobs which humans find undesirable.

Increased productivity, accuracy, and endurance

 

A Pick and Place robot in a factory

Many factory jobs are now performed by robots. This has led to cheaper mass-produced goods, including automobiles and electronics. Stationary manipulators used in factories have become the largest market for robots. In 2006, there were an estimated 3,540,000 service robots in use, and an estimated 950,000 industrial robots.^[68] A different estimate counted more than one million robots in operation worldwide in the first half of 2008, with roughly half in Asia, 32% in Europe, 16% in North America, 1% in Australasia and 1% in Africa.^[69]

Some examples of factory robots

• Car production: Over the last three decades automobile factories have become dominated by robots. A typical factory contains hundreds of industrial robots working on fully automated production lines, with one robot for every ten human workers. On an automated production line, a vehicle chassis on a conveyor is welded, glued, painted and finally assembled at a sequence of robot stations.

• Packaging: Industrial robots are also used extensively for palletizing and packaging of manufactured goods, for example for rapidly taking drink cartons from the end of a conveyor belt and placing them into boxes, or for loading and unloading machining centers.

• Electronics: Mass-produced printed circuit boards (PCBs) are almost exclusively manufactured by pick-and-place robots, typically with SCARA manipulators, which remove tiny electronic components from strips or trays, and place them on to PCBs with great accuracy.^[70] Such robots can place hundreds of thousands of components per hour, far out-performing a human in speed, accuracy, and reliability.^[71]

• Automated guided vehicles (AGVs): Mobile robots, following markers or wires in the floor, or using vision^[72] or lasers, are used to transport goods around large facilities, such as warehouses, container ports, or hospitals.^[73]

• • Early AGV-Style Robots were limited to tasks that could be accurately defined and had to be performed the same way every time. Very little feedback or intelligence was required, and the robots needed only the most basic exteroceptors (sensors). The limitations of these AGVs are that their paths are not easily altered and they cannot alter their paths if obstacles block them. If one AGV breaks down, it may stop the entire operation.

• • Interim AGV-Technologies developed that deploy triangulation from beacons or bar code grids for scanning on the floor or ceiling. In most factories, triangulation systems tend to require moderate to high maintenance, such as daily cleaning of all beacons or bar codes. Also, if a tall pallet or large vehicle blocks beacons or a bar code is marred, AGVs may become lost. Often such AGVs are designed to be used in human-free environments.

• • Newer AGVs such as the Speci-Minder,^[74] ADAM,^[75] Tug^[76] and PatrolBot Gofer^[77] are designed for people-friendly workspaces. They navigate by recognizing natural features. 3D scanners or other means of sensing the environment in two or three dimensions help to eliminate cumulative errors in dead-reckoning calculations of the AGV’s current position. Some AGVs can create maps of their environment using scanning lasers with simultaneous localization and mapping (SLAM) and use those maps to navigate in real time with other path planning and obstacle avoidance algorithms. They are able to operate in complex environments and perform non-repetitive and non-sequential tasks such as transporting photomasks in a semiconductor lab, specimens in hospitals and goods in warehouses. For dynamic areas, such as warehouses full of pallets, AGVs require additional strategies. Only a few vision-augmented systems currently claim to be able to navigate reliably in such environments.

Dirty, dangerous, dull or inaccessible tasks

 

A U.S. Marine Corps technician prepares to use a telerobot to detonate a buried improvised explosive device near Camp Fallujah, Iraq

There are many jobs which humans would rather leave to robots. The job may be boring, such as domestic cleaning, or dangerous, such as exploring inside a volcano.^[78] Other jobs are physically inaccessible, such as exploring another planet,^[79] cleaning the inside of a long pipe, or performing laparoscopic surgery.^[80]

• Telerobots: When a human cannot be present on site to perform a job because it is dangerous, far away, or inaccessible, teleoperated robots, or telerobots are used. Rather than following a predetermined sequence of movements, a telerobot is controlled from a distance by a human operator. The robot may be in another room or another country, or may be on a very different scale to the operator. For instance, a laparoscopic surgery robot allows the surgeon to work inside a human patient on a relatively small scale compared to open surgery, significantly shortening recovery time.^[80] When disabling a bomb, the operator sends a small robot to disable it. Several authors have been using a device called the Longpen to sign books remotely.^[81] Teleoperated robot aircraft, like the Predator Unmanned Aerial Vehicle, are increasingly being used by the military. These pilotless drones can search terrain and fire on targets.^[82][83] Hundreds of robots such as iRobot’s Packbot and the Foster-Miller TALON are being used in Iraq and Afghanistan by the U.S. military to defuse roadside bombs or Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) in an activity known as explosive ordnance disposal (EOD).^[84]

• Automated fruit harvesting machines: are being used to pick fruit on orchards at a cost lower than that of human pickers.

 

The Roomba domestic vacuum cleaner robot does a single, menial job

 

The ANATROLLER ARI-100 is a modular mobile robot used for cleaning hazardous environments

• In the home: As prices fall and robots become smarter and more autonomous, simple robots dedicated to a single task work in over a million homes. They are taking on simple but unwanted jobs, such as vacuum cleaning and floor washing, and lawn mowing. Some find these robots to be cute and entertaining, which is one reason that they can sell very well.
• Elder Care: The population is aging in many countries, especially Japan, meaning that there are increasing numbers of elderly people to care for, but relatively fewer young people to care for them.^[85][86] Humans make the best carers, but where they are unavailable, robots are gradually being introduced.^[87]
• Duct Cleaning: In the hazardous and tight spaces of a building’s duct work, many hours can be spent cleaning relatively small areas if a manual brush is used. Robots have been used by many duct cleaners primarily in the industrial and institutional cleaning markets, as they allow the job to be done faster, without exposing workers to the harful enzymes released by dust mites. For cleaning high-security institutions such as embassies and prisons, duct cleaning robots are vital, as they allow the job to be completed without compromising the security of the institution. Hospitals and other government buildings with hazardous and cancerogenic environments such as nuclear reactors legally must be cleaned using duct cleaning robots, in countries such as Canada, in an effort to improve workplace safety in duct cleaning.

Potential problems

Fears and concerns about robots have been repeatedly expressed in a wide range of books and films. A common theme is the development of a master race of conscious and highly intelligent robots, motivated to take over or destroy the human race. (See The Terminator, Runaway, Blade Runner, Robocop, [[Replicator (Stargate)the Replicators in Stargate]], the Cylons in Battlestar Galactica, The Matrix, THX-1138, and I, Robot.) Some fictional robots are programmed to kill and destroy; others gain superhuman intelligence and abilities by upgrading their own software and hardware. Examples of popular media where the robot becomes evil are 2001: A Space Odyssey, Red Planet, … Another common theme is the reaction, sometimes called the “uncanny valley“, of unease and even revulsion at the sight of robots that mimic humans too closely.^[88] Frankenstein (1818), often called the first science fiction novel, has become synonymous with the theme of a robot or monster advancing beyond its creator. In the TV show, Futurama, the robots are portrayed as humanoid figures that live alongside humans, not as robotic butlers. They still work in industry, but these robots carry out daily lives.

Manuel De Landa has noted that “smart missiles” and autonomous bombs equipped with artificial perception can be considered robots, and they make some of their decisions autonomously. He believes this represents an important and dangerous trend in which humans are handing over important decisions to machines.^[89]

Marauding robots may have entertainment value, but unsafe use of robots constitutes an actual danger. A heavy industrial robot with powerful actuators and unpredictably complex behavior can cause harm, for instance by stepping on a human’s foot or falling on a human. Most industrial robots operate inside a security fence which separates them from human workers, but not all. Two robot-caused deaths are those of Robert Williams and Kenji Urada. Robert Williams was struck by a robotic arm at a casting plant in Flat Rock, Michigan on January 25, 1979.^[90] 37-year-old Kenji Urada, a Japanese factory worker, was killed in 1981; Urada was performing routine maintenance on the robot, but neglected to shut it down properly, and was accidentally pushed into a grinding machine.^[91]

Timeline

History

Many ancient mythologies include artificial people, such as the mechanical servants built by the Greek god Hephaestus^[96] (Vulcan to the Romans), the clay golems of Jewish legend and clay giants of Norse legend, and Galatea, the mythical statue of Pygmalion that came to life. In Greek drama, Deus Ex Machina was contrived as a dramatic device that usually involved lowering a deity by wires into the play to solve a seemingly impossible problem.

In the 4th century BC, the Greek mathematician Archytas of Tarentum postulated a mechanical steam-operated bird he called “The Pigeon”. Hero of Alexandria (10–70 AD) created numerous user-configurable automated devices, and described machines powered by air pressure, steam and water.^[97] Su Song built a clock tower in China in 1088 featuring mechanical figurines that chimed the hours.^[98]

 

Al-Jazari’s programmable humanoid robots

Al-Jazari (1136–1206), a Muslim inventor during the Artuqid dynasty, designed and constructed a number of automated machines, including kitchen appliances, musical automata powered by water, and the first programmable humanoid robots in 1206.^{[citation needed]} The robots appeared as four musicians on a boat in a lake, entertaining guests at royal drinking parties. His mechanism had a programmable drum machine with pegs (cams) that bumped into little levers that operated percussion instruments. The drummer could be made to play different rhythms and different drum patterns by moving the pegs to different locations.^{[citation needed]}

Early modern developments

 

Tea-serving karakuri, with mechanism, 19th century. Tokyo National Science Museum.

Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) sketched plans for a humanoid robot around 1495. Da Vinci’s notebooks, rediscovered in the 1950s, contain detailed drawings of a mechanical knight now known as Leonardo’s robot, able to sit up, wave its arms and move its head and jaw.^[99] The design was probably based on anatomical research recorded in his Vitruvian Man. It is not known whether he attempted to build it. In 1738 and 1739, Jacques de Vaucanson exhibited several life-sized automatons: a flute player, a pipe player and a duck. The mechanical duck could flap its wings, crane its neck, and swallow food from the exhibitor’s hand, and it gave the illusion of digesting its food by excreting matter stored in a hidden compartment.^[100] Complex mechanical toys and animals built in Japan in the 1700s were described in the Karakuri zui (Illustrated Machinery, 1796)

Modern developments

The Japanese craftsman Hisashige Tanaka (1799–1881), known as “Japan’s Edison” or “Karakuri Giemon”, created an array of extremely complex mechanical toys, some of which served tea, fired arrows drawn from a quiver, and even painted a Japanese kanji character.^[101] In 1898 Nikola Tesla publicly demonstrated a radio-controlled torpedo.^[102] Based on patents for “teleautomation”, Tesla hoped to develop it into a weapon system for the US Navy.^[103][104]

 

The first Unimate

In 1926, Westinghouse Electric Corporation created Televox, the first robot put to useful work. They followed Televox with a number of other simple robots, including one called Rastus, made in the crude image of a black man. In the 1930s, they created a humanoid robot known as Elektro for exhibition purposes, including the 1939 and 1940 World’s Fairs.^[105][106] In 1928, Japan’s first robot, Gakutensoku, was designed and constructed by biologist Makoto Nishimura.

The first electronic autonomous robots were created by William Grey Walter of the Burden Neurological Institute at Bristol, England in 1948 and 1949. They were named Elmer and Elsie. These robots could sense light and contact with external objects, and use these stimuli to navigate.^[107]

The first truly modern robot, digitally operated and programmable, was invented by George Devol in 1954 and was ultimately called the Unimate. Devol sold the first Unimate to General Motors in 1960, and it was installed in 1961 in a plant in Trenton, New Jersey to lift hot pieces of metal from a die casting machine and stack them.^[108]

Literature

 

A gynoid, or robot designed to resemble a woman, can appear comforting to some people and disturbing to others^[88]

Robotic characters, androids (artificial men/women) or gynoids (artificial women), and cyborgs (also “bionic men/women”, or humans with significant mechanical enhancements) have become a staple of science fiction.

The first reference in Western literature to mechanical servants appears in Homer’s Iliad. In Book XVIII, Hephaestus, god of fire, creates new armor for the hero Achilles, assisted by robots.^[109] According to the Rieu translation, “Golden maidservants hastened to help their master. They looked like real women and could not only speak and use their limbs but were endowed with intelligence and trained in handwork by the immortal gods.” Of course, the words “robot” or “android” are not used to describe them, but they are nevertheless mechanical devices human in appearance.

The most prolific author of stories about robots was Isaac Asimov (1920–1992), who placed robots and their interaction with society at the center of many of his works.^[110][111] Asimov carefully considered the problem of the ideal set of instructions robots might be given in order to lower the risk to humans, and arrived at his Three Laws of Robotics: a robot may not injure a human being or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm; a robot must obey orders given to it by human beings, except where such orders would conflict with the First Law; and a robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Law.^[112] These were introduced in his 1942 short story “Runaround”, although foreshadowed in a few earlier stories. Later, Asimov added the Zeroth Law: “A robot may not harm humanity, or, by inaction, allow humanity to come to harm”; the rest of the laws are modified sequentially to acknowledge this.

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the first passage in Asimov’s short story “Liar!” (1941) that mentions the First Law is the earliest recorded use of the word robotics. Asimov was not initially aware of this; he assumed the word already existed by analogy with mechanics, hydraulics, and other similar terms denoting branches of applied knowledge.^[113]

See also

Robotics portal

Main list: Topic outline of robotics

For classes and types of robots see Category:Robots.

Notes and references

Further reading

• Cheney, Margaret [1989:123] (1981). Tesla, Man Out of Time. Dorset Press. New York. ISBN 0-88029-419-1
• Craig, J.J. (2005). Introduction to Robotics. Pearson Prentice Hall. Upper Saddle River, NJ.
• Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 2. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.
• Sotheby’s New York. The Tin Toy Robot Collection of Matt Wyse, (1996)
• Tsai, L. W. (1999). Robot Analysis. Wiley. New York.
• DeLanda, Manuel. War in the Age of Intelligent Machines. 1991. Swerve. New York.
• Journal of Field Robotics

External links

Wikibooks has a book on the topic of   Robotics

Wikiversity has learning materials about Anthropomorphic Robotics

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Robots

Look up robot in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

General news and developments

• robots.net general robot-related news and technological developments.

Research

• International Foundation of Robotics Research (IFRR)
• International Journal of Robotics Research (IJRR).
• Robotics and Automation Society (RAS) at IEEE
• Robotics Network at IET
• Robotics Division at NASA
• Human Machine Integration Laboratory at Arizona State University

Other links

• Robotics at DMOZ at the Open Directory Project
• List of robots at Communist Robot

Imagine it: “cullinary tools for life”. This is the promise of a new range of kitchen products from Philips, The Robust Collection. OK, so the products are only guaranteed for 3 years (5 years on the juicer and food processor, and 15 years on their motors). That’s more like tools for the life of a small mammal. But it’s a step in the right direction.

Two and a half  years in the making, this range represents an effort by Philips to make stuff that will last. It may be a bit more expensive, but a move in this direction prevents the waste of endless plastic replacements. It will also decrease our desire for the next ‘new’ feature. When both comapanies and consumers invest more in things that last, we all have a stake in slowing down the consumer carousel.

The website blurb about product capacity made me think, too: how often do I push appliances to the max – not using them carefully and thankfully, but expecting them to bear maximum load until the inevitable break-replace-break cycle continues? Maybe we consumers should also give our guarantee that we won’t be careless with the products we’re privileged enough to own?

Under Perens‘ definition, open source describes a broad general type of software license that makes source code available to the general public with relaxed or non-existent copyright restrictions. The principles, as stated, say absolutely nothing about trademark or patent use and require absolutely no cooperation to ensure that any common audit or release regime applies to any derived works. It is an explicit “feature” of open source that it may put no restrictions on the use or distribution by any organization or user. It forbids this, in principle, to guarantee continued access to derived works even by the major original contributors.

Open source culture is the creative practice of appropriation and free sharing of found and created content. Examples include collage, found footage film, music, and appropriation art. Open source culture is one in which fixations, works entitled to copyright protection are made generally available. Participants in the culture can modify those products and redistribute them back into the community or other organisations.

(source: Wikipedia)

Our relationships with other people in many ways operate as open source code.  We put ourselves out there in the world and let others add, change, impact, subtract and copy our behaviour.  There is little we can we do about it.  At times we believe we have a copyright on what we say or do, only to realise later that our actions or words have been edited or misinterpreted altogether.

When we hold on to what we believe to be the copyright of who we are, we actually limit the level of interaction we allow ourselves in any given relationship and by doing so we also limit our resilience and ability to bounce back after tough exchanges.

What if we freed ourselves from our need for copyright of who we believe we are and allow others to add freely?  I believe we would then open ourselves to fulfilling our potential and to a greater flexibility.  We would allow others to contribute and share with us honestly how they experience us.  We can let them impact on us and accept that their experience can bring about change in us.

This can be frightening at times and of course there has to be some measure of protection in place, our core values and what we stand for are important, and like Wikipedia, while anyone can contribute, only trusted and genuine sources are accepted.

It is true that some people only see us through their own fears and by doing so would only offer us a partial view of how they experience us; this is an experience we all share.  But if we create a trusted environment with the people who are close to us, we can create a beautiful and dynamic collage of us which would allow us to change and adapt to new realities.  Not only will we be stronger and more robust but also enjoy richer experiences.

We don’t always get it right with others, as others don’t always get it right about us, but I believe that an open source state of mind allows for mistakes and corrections to be made in a more experimental mode rather than a threat-resisting mode.

I was delighted to find out the Trung Nguyen Coffee got to our shores, and even more delighted that DC found it too and loves it. In fact, he loves it so much they recognise him already. I think one week he went there for a cuppa almost every day.

Trung Nguyen is the Viet equivalent of Starbucks, only infinitely superior to the coffee-flavoured milk Starbucks serves. Here they do things the traditional Viet way using flimsy little drip coffee contraptions. Choose which number brew you like (each is blended differently) and wait for the hot water to percolate through the metal filter. I like Blend No. 5. It’s deeply aromatic and very robust with little acidity. It’s the equivalent of a boot up the bum gulped black, but what a fragrant boot up the bum! Drunk with a good dose of condensed milk, it’s a better version of the coffeeshop kopi: very sweet, very smooth and very strong. I think this is the best coffee in Singapore. Do yourself a favour and forget the other coffee places. This is it.

Trung Nguyen Coffee
Liang Court
177 River Valley Road #02-34
Tel: 6837 3314

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Who’s afraid of the Big Bad Wolf???

Why am I singing this in my head? Because the notion that it is Rahm alone who is the villain in a projected submarining of robust is a mite fatuous.

If there is a Big Bad Wolf, his name will be Barack Obama. Rahm works for him.

But there isn’t a Big Bad Wolf.

We are still playing rope-a-dope. This Strategy has survived a summer when everyone said reform was dead.

It continues. Why? Because support takes time to build and support is what this is all about. Obama is really trying to make us a democracy again.

So. We will get a robust public option if the middle becomes more familiar with the truth  that a robust public option is really not a progressive thing. It’s a reasonable, common sense thing. Hell. A robust public option is conservative. It’s fiscally sound. It can be a lock.

So what should progressives be doing? As usual, winning the middle. Do you do that by slapping Rahm’s hand? I don’t think it makes a difference, other than to distract from the task and give the MSM another non-story.

Just as the MSM should stop treating lies and facts as two sides of an issue, progressives  should parse the Presidential words and realize that he has made the case for a robust public option repeatedly. Underlining and spreading that has been the bread and butter progressive strategy.

It is the only one that will prevail.

Der Garten und die Terrasse werden zur Wohnlandschaft. Was mit designorientierten Gartenmöbeln begann, setzt sich fort bei modernen Pflanzkübeln und Blumentrögen. Wetterfest sollen die Blumenkübel sein und robust dazu. Vor allem Blumenkübel aus Fiberglas scheinen sich hier gegenüber herkömmlichem Zink und Terrakotta durchzusetzen.

Der Begriff stammt aus dem Englischen, trifft aber den Punkt: “Homing”, das Verlegen des Lebensmittelpunktes auf das eigene Zuhause, scheint DER Trend zu sein – der sich in Zeiten der Krise noch verstärkt. Gärten und Terrassen werden immer mehr zu Wohnlandschaften und das zeigt sich auch bei der Möblierung. Früher prägten klobige Holzmöbel die heimische Terrasse, heute sind es moderne Loungewelten mit Couch und Sesseln – am besten aus wetterfestem Polyrattan.

Eine wichtige Rolle spielen dabei Pflanzkübel, Blumentröge und Blumenkübel. Vor allem Pflanzkübel aus Fiberglas setzen im Außenbereich schöne Akzente und sind ein echter Blickfang. Angesagt sind geometrische Formen wie Würfel, Quader und Säulen. Die Vorteile liegen auf der Hand: Die Pflanzgefäße aus Fiberglas sind robust, leicht und wetterbeständig. Frost kann ihnen nichts anhaben, da die Pflanzkübel innen mit einer Isoliermasse ausgekleidet sind. Anders dagegen Blumenkübel aus Terrakotta, in deren grobe Poren sich Nässe festsetzt und die in harten Wintern platzen können.

Die Eastwest-Trading GmbH bietet eine Vielzahl von Pflanzgefäßen aus modernem Fiberglas an, Kunden können wählen zwischen den Farben granitschwarz, blütenweiß, terrakotta-like, schiefer und diversen Grautönen. Doch während etwa Zinkkübel vor allem im Außenbereich eingesetzt werden (Rostgefahr!), setzen Pflanzkübel aus Fiberglas auch im Wohnbereich wichtige Akzente. Sie dienen als Raumteiler und elegante Einzelposition.

Eines scheint klar: Das Homing wird sich weiter fortsetzen. Für seine Kunden führt die Eastwest-Trading GmbH deshalb den Weg fort, hochwertige und günstige Pflanzkübel auf den Markt zu bringen. Möglich wird das durch den Direkteinkauf beim Hersteller – es entfällt jeder Zwischenhhandel. Für die nächsten Jahre sind neue spannende Formen und Farben geplant, das Programm ständig bereichert und erweitert. Die schönsten Modelle finden Sie unter www.eastwest-trading.de

Two football clubs and police discuss ways of preventing trouble at Saturday’s game between Shrewsbury Town and Port Vale…. From BBC News. Full story

This site may contain information about: indoor soccer shoes. The blog is also related to: soccer latest.

“And the stranger on the other side of the mountain was smiling at me…” A cartoon camel face to face with his alter ego or having a mind-bending experience. All products are brand-new and customizable. Discounts and special offers apply.

See more at

Cheerful Madness!! online shop

Cheerful Madness!! online shop UK

Cheerful Madness!! online shop Canada

Cheerful Madness!! online shop Australia

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Volkswagen sigue mostrando de a poco la pick-up Amarok, que se fabricara en la fábrica argentina de Pacheco, mediante un sitio web, en el cual se va a ir mostrando paso a paso la fabricacion de este vehiculo.

Anteriormente se habian visto las ruedas y luego el chasis, ahora es el turno de los asientos delanteros, lo que nos hace suponer que todavia falta bastante tiempo para que se muestre completamente.

La primera version en fabricarse, será la TDi de 180 hp, con cuatro ruedas motrices, y doble cabina. Luego se agregara la variante con cabina simple, 4×2 y hay rumores de que podría haber una SUV.

La pick-up conocida hasta ahora con el nombre de “Robust” recibió un nombre de la lengua esquimal Inuit, que significa lobo.

Previo a su elección, el nombre fue testeado en los diferentes idiomas de los países adonde se exportará: toda Latinoamérica, Alemania, Gran Bretaña, Rusia, Sudáfrica y Australia, entre otros mercados, probablemente para que no suceda lo mismo que con el Nissan Moco o Mazda Laputa, entre otros.

En una primera etapa, la Amarok se lanzará con carrocería de doble cabina y tracción integral, aunque poco después se lanzarán las variantes con cabina y tracción simples. Una versión SUV, como la ofrecida por Toyota con la SW4, no está prevista por el momento.

Ya habian sido tomadas algunas fotos de su exterior, pero ahora llegan las primeras de su interior.

Por lo visto en las imágenes, tendra una muy buena calidad de acabado para lo que estamos acostumbrados en el Mercosur, con plasticos blandos en la parte superior del tablero y algunos detalles en simil aluminio. Probablemente tambien equipe doble Airbag de serie.

Equipa una computadora de a bordo, y un tacometro de diseño algo deportivo acompañado por un velocimetro que marca como máximo nada menos que 240 km/h.

moneydance screenshot of some rich guy's demo accounts

In addition to needing to save up for our incredibly, super wonderful, fun yet educational, around-the-world trip, we have also recently found ourselves needing a more robust and reliable way to organize our personal and business finances. While excel and numbers spreadsheets are fantastically flexible, they are almost too flexible for us and we find ourselves spending all of our time adjusting formulas and formats to make things run more smoothly.

What we need is a finance software that doesn’t cost too much, handles all of our accounts in multiple currencies, tracks our spending habits, manages our budgets, scolds us when we’ve overspent, and makes us cookies when we’ve reached a monthly savings goal. Too much to ask for?

After lots of research (which I could get into, but it would take a much longer post) and after downloading trials and demo version of pretty much everything out there (iBank, Moneywell, iFinance, Liquid Ledger, and the list goes on and on…), we decided to go with MoneyDance. The other finalist was MoneyWell, which is SO much more attractive to look at and has pretty reports and even a well designed mac-ish looking logo. But when it came down to, well, … money… MoneyDance was cheaper and just as, if not more, comprehensive. Since we wanted the general theme of the whole experience to be saving money, we thought we would start with our money software.

What I like most about MoneyDance:

- All my accounts and my boyfriend’s accounts are listed, but it treats our money as a collective thing to be spent. This is not only great because… well, he has more money than me… but also it allows us to track our spending habits as a couple more easily.

- Two words: Multiple Currencies. Yeah baby. This is key in the modern world and I was absolutely SHOCKED to find that most personal finance software doesn’t support this. My boyfriend and I are from two different countries, with combined family in two additional countries, and we lived and met (and banked) in yet a fifth country. Plus, we now want to travel around the world. It’s messy, but MoneyDance can do it. I do have some issues with setting the conversion fees, but that’s my beef with the whole system – not the software.

What I like least about MoneyDance:

- While the budget management exists and is ok once you decipher the ridiculously limited instruction on their website, it’s not very pretty or intuitive. In fact, at first I thought the idea of envelope budgeting would not be an option and since I had already paid I was a little angry. Even in the MoneyDance forums, people are completely convinced that it’s not possible to do with the software. It’s not true. It IS possible. It’s just a pain.

- It’s not very pretty to look at. I am so superficial.

The Financial Accounting Standards Board took up the controversial question of disclosure requirements for loss contingencies at its latest meeting and decided that companies need to make more disclosures.

FASB decided on the following disclosure objective: “An entity shall disclose qualitative and quantitative information about the loss contingency to enable a financial statement user to understand the nature of the contingency and its potential timing and magnitude.”

The board also decided that disclosures about litigation contingencies should focus on the contentions of the parties, rather than predictions about the future outcome. Disclosures about a contingency should be more robust as the likelihood and magnitude of loss increase and as the contingency progresses toward resolution, said FASB. In addition, disclosures should provide a summary of information that is publicly available about a case and indicate where users can obtain more information.

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…do those words describe your website? Things to consider if you want your website to have maximum accessibility:

• Insert text alternatives for objects and images
• Make content readily available to screen readers
• Ensure plenty of contrast, particularly with text colour against background colour
• Make content predictable and easy to follow
• Create simple navigation

For more details, check out the W3C: Web Accessibilty Quicktips

WA has led the charge with a rise in building approvals in June, fresh figures reveal today. 

There was a 21.1 per cent rise in building approvals in WA last month, compared to a national rise of 9.3 per cent.

But the recovery followed an 11 per cent decline in May, taking the latest tally of 11,086 new construction projects to a level lower than where it was in April.

Still, the latest monthly increase was stronger than a market forecast for an eight per cent rise.

Approvals in the volatile apartment-building sector surged 27.7 per cent while detached housing numbers increased by a much smaller 4.9 per cent.

On an annual basis, overall building approvals are down 14.3 per cent.

Apartment building approvals are also 45.7 per cent weaker compared with a year earlier.

Construction activity was also more robust in Victoria, where approvals rose by 17.4 per cent, followed by an 11.3 per cent increase in South Australia.

NSW had a more modest recovery of 3.4 per cent.

Building approvals went backwards in Tasmania, shrinking by 7.6 per cent, and Queensland, which suffered a 1.9 per cent decline.

Source  :  www.thewest.com.au

2006 Cabernet Sauvignon

YUM.  YUM.  YUM….  This is a gorgeously crafted wine with rich, robust flavors of blueberry, blackberry, cherry and  espresso.  You’ll also detect a little dark chocolate in the finish, which is always a treat.

From what I understand, this wine is actually 85% cab with smaller portions of Merlot, Cab Franc and Malbec making up the remaining 15%.  This wine won’t disappoint.  A higher-priced wine, but you get what you pay for with this one.   You can find it at www.napacabs.com for 79.95, or at Total Wine in Tusin for $79.99 (www.totalwine.com).

Robust JC3000 Joystick Provides Finger-Tip Control

Penny and Giles has brought out the robust finger-tip JC3000 joystick controller, which is suitable for applications such as radio remote controls and general off-highway vehicle applications. The joystick comes with a range of user-defined features, enabling OEMs to integrate it with safe and reliable control systems.

The JC3000 joystick controller has been designed for applications requiring fingertip control, where strength and reliability are important. It is made mostly of cast metal components, providing a long operational life. It can be specified as a dual or single-axis controller and features optional mechanical detents in both axes, allowing operators to easily determine the angular position of the joystick lever.

The JC3000 is available with up to five switched outputs per half axis, or with an analogue potentiometer output with switched centre or directional signals. With the switched option, the outputs relate to the mechanical detents on the joystick and the switches activate sequentially as the joystick lever is operated from centre to the end stop in all directions.

The joystick is simple to adapt into OEM systems, having been designed to easily fit inside enclosures and control panels. It offers IP66 protection above the mounting flange for protection against the ingress of dust and liquids. The joystick lever can accommodate a choice of many different handle types, allowing the controller to be tailored further. If customer-specific handle shapes or designs are preferred, a ‘no handle’ version can be selected with either a plain or threaded operating rod as a means of interfacing with the joystick.

Ich will ehrlich zugeben, dass ich mit meinen Handys nicht gerade pfleglich umgehe und sie bzw. ihr Aussehen mir das auch nicht gerade danken. Ein iPhone z.B., das ja offenbar gerne  mal fallengelassen wird und dann den Geist aufgibt, wäre eher nichts für mich, eher wohl das Ascent Ti Carbon Fiber von Vertu.

Das nämlich wirbt für sich mit einer “optimierten” Kombination von Karbonfasern und Kunstharz, die verspricht, gleichzeitig robust und leichtgewichtig zu sein.

Das Telefon wird in England handgefertigt, bietet ein 2-Zoll,QVGA-Display, 3G-Konnektivität, 4GB eingebauten Speicher und eine 3,15-MP-Kamera mit LRD-Blitz.

Den Preis für das ab August erhältliche Handy gibt’s auf Anfrage, was dann  ja mal wohl wieder heißt, dass es eher unerschwinglich ist. [dieter]

[via Born Rich]

New Robust out now on Galapagos4 digital… up next… Qwel & Maker “So Be It” 9/1/09

Gourmet Coffee that really is gourmet, no gimmicks, no marketing tactics, just gourmet coffee and at Good Scents Gourmet Coffee we always roast to you coffee to order ensuring that it really is fresh no vacuum sealing it or any other techniques to keeping it fresh just good old fashioned coffee that is roasted fresh to order every time.

There are a lot of gourmet coffee companies out on the market but what really make coffee “gourmet” anyways? Is it really flavoring, or the fact that it has a wide variety of origins, or that it is organic yes all this has a part in the gourmet factor, but the truth of the matter is that Gourmet coffee is “gourmet” because it is fresh and unique because the coffee bean itself is what makes the difference. Gourmet Coffee beans are really no different than any other coffee bean except that they are checked, double checked and rechecked for their quality of environment roasting and packaging, that is why at Good Scents Gourmet Coffee we never, never vacuum seal our coffee, you’ll receive fresh roasted coffee every time…

Not only that we only offer 100% Arabica coffee beans, I know this does not mean much to some, but it does to us because we know the difference in quality between Robusta and Arabica and we only offer the best!

And remember the Proof is in the cup

so come and check us out at…

www.coffeebeans4u.com

Someone had to come up with this, it was just a matter of time, and it is no suprise that this article comes from India, one of the major providers of global outsourcing for many industries. In an article reviewing some 100 references,  Babu & More (2008) Perspectives, practices and future of supply chain flexibility, the focus is on anything supply chain flexibility, really anything that relates to supply chain flexibility. And honestly, I must say, they don’t leave much ground uncovered.

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