Burrhus Frederic Skinner propôs o Behaviorismo- filosofia que fundamenta a análise comportamental. Os seus textos tiveram grande repercussão na América e foi uma das áreas da psicologia que mais se desenvolveu. Embora motivo para muitas críticas, tem ampla aplicação na compreensão do autismo (é considerado pelo meio acadêmico o melhor método para o tratamento do autismo), em animais, para a produção de games, entre outras.

            Skinner teve como influência vários intelectuais como Darwin, Watson e Pavlov. Com o primeiro, Skinner compreendeu que com estudos de comportamentos animais e pelo entendimento da evolução das espécies podemos compreender o comportamento humano. Watson foi o precursor da analise comportamental humana em comparação análoga com animais. Para ele não havia distinção entre os dois, tanto nos homens quanto nos animais toda aprendizagem dependia do meio externo; não existia consciência, logo toda atividade humana é puramente condicionada, dependente do ambiente e não levava em consideração as características genéticas. Todavia os experimentos com animais em laboratório foram dirigidos pelos trabalhos desenvolvidos por Ivan Pavlov. Pavlov realizou um trabalho sobre condicionamento condicionado. Sua pesquisa mostrou que funções reflexas como a salivação frente a alimentos poderiam ser condicionadas de forma que a salivação pudesse ser eliciada por outro estimulo diferente do alimento, tal como sinal luminosos ou um som; muitas vezes o animal em análise eliciava pelo barulho dos portes de alimento.

            As críticas a psicologia comportamental se sustentam no fato de experiências com animais fetos em laboratório serem generalizadas para os comportamentos humanos mais complexos. Outro ponto é que as variáveis que o comportamento humano ocorre não são tão precisa com as experiências feitas em laboratório.

            Watson embora fora uma base para a formulação do behaviorismo foi muito criticado. Skinner critica-o pela sua tendência a generalizar com base em dados gerais. Também os pensamentos de Watson surgiram prematuramente, não havia registros científicos que fundamentava suas idéias naquela época.

            Os principais conceitos que Skinner trás é distintamente daqueles apresentados por outras teorias. Os conceitos observados pelos não behavioristas são denominados ficções explanatórias. Skinner descreve-os como conceitos usados pelas pessoas quando não conhece o comportamento envolvido ou desconhecem os reforços que precedem ou sucedem determinado comportamento (FADIMAM e FRAGER, 2002). Alguns exemplos de ficções explanatórias são liberdade, dignidade, criatividade e homem autônomo.

            O comportamento é entendido como comportamento respondente e operante. O comportamento respondente ou reflexo é aquele que o organismo responde automaticamente a um estimulo – controlado pelo antecedente. O comportamento operante é fortalecido ou enfraquecido pelos eventos que seguem a resposta, é um processo de manter pelas conseqüências um determinado comportamento particular.  O reforçamento é qualquer estimulo que aumente a probabilidade de uma resposta. O reforço pode ser positivo ou negativo. O primeiro incentiva a ocorrência de determinado comportamento, o negativo, de forma contrária, reduz ou elimina uma resposta. Um comportamento se diz condicionado quando se conhece as relações entre os reforços positivos ou negativos.

             A recompensa é a melhor forma de controlar um comportamento e de aprendizagem. A punição, embora muito utilizada pela sociedade como forma de coerção de crianças e criminosos, não é a mais eficaz. O controle aversivo —punição- não desaparece com os comportamentos indesejados, pelo contrário, voltam ligados a novos comportamentos como modos de evitar novas punições. A punição também reforça exclusivamente a pessoas que está  punindo.  O pai reclama do filho até que cumpra uma tarefa; ao cumpri-la, o filho escapa às reclamações (reforçando o comportamento do pai). Skinner conclui que a punição não satisfaz aas exigências de longo alcance da pessoa que está punindo, nem beneficia a pessoa que recebe punição (FADIMAM e FRAGER, 2002).

Referências:

Princípios básicos da análise do comportamento – Moreira.

Teoria da personalidade – Fadimam e Frager.

Enté, Felipe Mendes. =)

With the first month of the NHL season in the books, it is a good time to put a fun little exercise like a mock draft together.

Much will change when it comes to the teams slotted in these positions and there will be a few prospects that also rise or fall before it all is written in stone. This mock draft takes current standings into account but also we tweak the order somewhat as to where we think NHL teams will finish the year based on the first month plus of action.

Some of the surprises early on in the NHL season include the struggles of the mighty Detroit Red Wings, Anaheim Ducks and Montreal Canadiens as well as the surprisingly solid starts of the Colorado Avalanche, L.A. Kings and the Phoenix Coyotes who many thought might wrap it up and take refuge in the NHL’s basement until this whole ownership/coaching change and bankruptcy storm passes.

In the below mock, we have San Jose vs. Detroit in the Western Conference finals, Pittsburgh vs. Washington in the Eastern Finals and Pittsburgh eventually winning the Cup over San Jose in the Stanley Cup Finals.

Hey, it could happen. But give Future Considerations half of your Vegas winnings when you book it.

BOSTON Bruins (via Toronto Maple Leafs *)

1st Overall Selection: C/LW Taylor Hall – Windsor (OHL)

Organizational Summary: Boston has a NHL roster full of young talent at the forward positions and a potential starting goalie in the making behind Tim Thomas on the depth chart. In the farm system, they have some able bodied future NHLers on the way at centre and on defense.
They need to add a high-end offensive prospect or two on the wing as they are thin on both sides. Additional defensive depth would be a wise investment. Overall, a couple puck moving defenders as well as a goal scoring winger or two would be nice additions to the organization’s development system.

Pick Summary: The Bruins just might have made one of the best NHL trades since they were fleeced for big Joe Thornton by the San Jose Sharks in 2005. Sure, Phil Kessel will help the Toronto Maple Leafs both in the now and down the road but with Toronto’s next two potential lottery picks and a second rounder this year, Boston has the ability to retool their cupboard for the future while still going for a run at the cup. The B’s use the top pick on the high-end skill of Taylor Hall which helps replace the departed Kessel’s goal scoring. The addition of Hall to the Bruins organization alone makes this a pretty even deal.

CAROLINA Hurricanes

2nd Overall Selection: C Tyler Seguin – Plymouth (OHL)

Organizational Summary: The Carolina Hurricanes have some decent forward prospects moving through the ranks in Brandon Sutter, Zach Boychuk and Drayson Bowman. They have a good mix of talent developing in net as well. On the backend they need help. With the exception of Jamie McBain they have a lot of hit or miss types and nothing immediately on the way. The overall depth at all skating positions needs an upgrade and they do not have much in the way of potential high-end contributors up front. In net, a high-end prospect would help solidify the unit.

Pick Summary: The Hurricanes snap up the impressive Tyler Seguin with this pick, a prospect with ties to the organization. Carolina Hurricanes owner Peter Karmanos also owns the OHL’s Plymouth Whalers franchise and there is a history of continuety between both teams. Seguin offers Carolina a top end prospect that they can build around for the future.

FLORIDA Panthers

3rd Overall Selection: D Cam Fowler – Windsor (OHL)

Organizational Summary: The Florida Panthers have a balanced system with some high-end prospects at every position. Goaltending has one of the most highly regarded tenders coming through in big Swede Jacob Markstrom while on defense they have a solid puck moving threat in Dmitri Kulikov who is already playing meaningful minutes in the NHL as a rookie. The Panthers are lacking a true top end forward prospect who can lead the Panthers offensive attack night in and night out. On the backend they could use a couple puck moving rearguards to fill out the system.

Pick Summary: The Panthers are in the midst of a semi-retool as they currently have some nice young NHL talent and also are infusing some prospects into the roster. Fowler adds one more impressive building block to the future roster they are building from the goal out.

MINNESOTA Wild

4th Overall Selection: LW Kirill Kabanov – Moncton (QMJHL)

Organizational Summary: The Minnesota Wild have a couple real solid defensive prospects in Tyler Cuma, Nick Leddy and Marco Scandella that should be NHL fixtures on their blue line for years to come. They also have some depth in character type wingers coming. Forward depth and top end scoring forwards are needed as their development pool is the thinnest in this area. Goaltending development, despite having solid depth, also needs a shot in the arm with a true blue chipper added to the mix. Minnesota has a hard time finding players in the mid to later rounds of the NHL draft which has led to a shallow prospect pool. It is imperative to nab players in the first couple rounds because of this organizational weakness.

Pick Summary: A highly skilled forward prospect is just what Minnesota is after with this pick and they have him in Kabanov. They also like Connolly and Granlund with this pick but go with the flashy Russian with game breaking abilities in the end.

NEW YORK Islanders

5th Overall Selection: D Brandon Gormley – Moncton (QMJHL)

Organizational Summary: The forward crew of the New York Islanders has good depth and a couple solid citizens with top line potential such as Cory Trivino and Kirill Petrov. On the backend they have some solid prospects in Aaron Ness, Calvin De Haan, Mark Katic and Travis Hamonic with good depth overall at the position. In net they have some nice potential as well. After years of bottom feeding and getting the lottery picks at the draft because of it, the organization has many solid prospects coming up through their development system. They would like a blue-chip goaltender to develop along with Mikko Koskinen as the Rick DiPietro injury/long term contract situation is unsettling. They need to continue adding prospects to the development system that have the ability to one day play meaningful minutes in the top six forward spots and in the top four on the backend.

Pick Summary: The Islander look at Brett Connolly and John McFarland with this pick but ultimately decide that they need to add a skilled and potential top defender in Brandon Gormley to compliment their highly skilled forwards Tavares, Bailey and Okposo taken in the last four drafts.

NASHVILLE Predators

6th Overall Selection: LW Brett Connolly – Prince George (WHL)

Organizational Summary: The Nashville Predators have another well balanced prospect pool from years of finishing at the low end of the standings and drafting high come June. They have some solid future contributors either on their way or making their contributions in the NHL already. Defensive depth is there main strength and has been for years also they have some young keepers in the crease with potential. At forward, they have some nice talent ready to break through in the near future. While they have depth up front they lack that one high-end talent that can be a first line contributor. They could use a goal scoring forward or two as well as a playmaker who can feed the puck to the finishers.

Pick Summary: The Predators looked at John McFarland or Vladimir Tarasenko at this spot but both of those prospects have too many unanswered questions despite their high skill levels. Selecting Brett Connolly adds a goal scoring forward to the prospect pool that they were sorely lacking.

PHOENIX Coyotes

7th Overall Selection: C/W John McFarland – Sudbury (OHL)

Organizational Summary: The Coyotes strong start this season is a direct result of a couple years of performing well at the draft table. They have built up a strong development system and packed it full of depth at each position. Many of their recent picks are playing a prominent role with the big club or are in-line for the chance to do so after some AHL seasoning. They need a blue-chip net minder to develop as the have depth but no real top end talent, with the possible exclusion of Mike Lee, at the most crucial position. Although they have some depth at the forward position, a couple top end offensive prospects, especially on the wing, would be great to have.

Pick Summary: The Coyotes have a potential building block type player drop into their laps with McFarland. He has the character, grit and skating to make a solid addition to a roster that already boasts a bunch of young NHL talent.

ATLANTA Thrashers

8th Overall Selection: D Erik Gudbranson – Kingston (OHL)

Organizational Summary: The Atlanta Thrashers have more depth in their prospect pool than they have had in years. They have a good balance as they have forwards who have character and a couple who are skilled, a solid young top four NHL defender in Zach Bogosian and one of the top young goalies in Ondrej Pavelec, both of whom are playing considerable roles in the NHL this season. A couple puck moving defenders would help the organizations forward immensely. They need some help on the backend as they lack any potential top four defenders in the making. Some more goaltending depth and a blue chip offensive forward would be a nice luxury as well.

Summary: Atlanta goes with the best available player and one who fits a need in the two-way rearguard Erik Gudbranson much to the disappointment of Montreal who also like the big defender. He adds another solid building block on the backend with NHL Sophomore Bogosian.

TAMPA BAY Lightning

9th Overall Selection: RW Vladimir Tarasenko – Sibir (KHL)

Organizational Summary: The Tampa Bay Lightning system has been able to add some nice talent the past couple drafts such as Steven Stamkos, Victor Hedman, Richard Panik, Dana Tyrell, Dustin Tokarski and Carter Ashton after some thin years. They are solid depth wise at the forward position and have a few promising goaltender prospects as well. Depth on the backend of potential top four defenders is almost none existent even after drafting Hedman last summer. They could use another stud, potential top four rearguard, and a goal scoring winger which would go along way to stabilizing this franchise for the future.

Pick Summary: Although a defender would look like the most logical fit here for the Lightning, they are enamored with the skills of Vladimir Tarasenko and think that he can contribute offensively to the big club as early as next season.

ST. LOUIS Blues

10th Overall Selection: G Jack Campbell – US NDTP U18 (USHL)

Organizational Summary: The St. Louis Blues, after strong drafting and a couple down years depth, have quality prospects and are strong in every area. They have a handful of young NHLers already who are tearing it up and with the likes of Alex Pietrangelo, Ian Cole, Lars Eller and Brett Sonne, the future looks brighter still. The blues truly do not have an organizational weakness that needs to be addressed, although a couple more scoring wingers would be nice, but instead will take the best player available.

Pick Summary: With this pick the Blues take their possible future in net with this selection as Campbell is a draft riser who many think is rated too low by the majority of scouting community. More than a couple NHL scouts think very highly of the Michigan native.

EDMONTON Oilers

11th Overall Selection: D Mark Pysyk – Edmonton (WHL)

Organizational Summary: The Edmonton Oilers has a few high-end prospects throughout such as Jordan Eberle, Magnus Paajarvi, Toni Rajala, Riley Nash, Jeff Petry and Theo Peckham, who has seen some NHL action already. The young NHL roster also helps as none of these guys needs to be rushed. They lack overall depth on defense as well as that high-end puck moving defender as a potential future top four contributor. A top end goaltending prospect would be a nice addition as well as more depth.

Pick Summary: Edmonton takes the Sherwood Park native and his impressive defensive game to fill a need in the organizations prospect pool. They look at other options with this pick but are sold on the ultra safe upside of Mark Pysyk.

MONTREAL Canadiens

12th Overall Selection: D Derek Forbort – US NDTP U18 (USHL)

Organizational Summary: The Montreal Canadiens’ main strength is in the forward ranks but they have some nice talent developing in the system at all skating positions. They have a few character types and some nice potential top six talents in Max Pacioretty and Louis Leblanc. They have a couple young NHL goalies in Carey Price and Jaroslav Halak but nothing else with much NHL potential coming through the system. The trade with the Rangers where they gave up promising defenseman prospect Ryan McDonagh really hurt the depth of high-end defenders.

Pick Summary: The Canadiens snap up the big bodied defender who has good wheels and can play both ways who helps bolster the prospect pool from the backend. This pick follows the trend in Montreal of picking NCAA bound prospects in the first round and letting them develop at their own pace.

COLUMBUS Blue Jackets

13th Overall Selection: C Quinton Howden – Moose Jaw (WHL)

Organizational Summary: Like many of the top NHL teams this season, the Columbus Blue Jackets also have some high-end NHL talent that are just starting to find their way at the NHL level. Steve Mason, Jakub Voracek, and Derick Brassard have all made a big difference to the on-ice product in Columbus, while the Nikita Filatov experiment is put on hold. With all this graduation it means that the talent pool has seen depletion and needs to be built back up. They still have good depth but need to add some highly skilled offensive prospects to all three forward positions and a blue-chipped in net.

Pick Summary: A few of the Jackets scouting personnel are high on Quinton Howden and think that he will become a skilled power forward at the NHL level. They are tempted by both Evgeni Kuznetsov and Alex Burmistrov’s skill but have had bad experiences with Russians lately and go with a safer bet in their minds.

OTTAWA Senators

14th Overall Selection: RW Alex Burmistrov – Barrie (OHL)

Organizational Summary: The Ottawa Senators have some nice draft picks on the backend such as Erik Karlsson, Patrick Wiercioch and Jared Cowen in recent drafts and the forward talent has decent depth as well. Some top end talent at the forward position is required as they currently have an abundance of future muckers and grinders waiting in the wings. A goal scoring winger or two would be a nice addition to the farm system. Goaltending depth is an area that could also use a boost despite young NHL net minders such as Pascal Leclaire and Brian Elliot.

Pick Summary: The Senators needed an infusion of skilled forward talent and get just that with Alex Burmistrov. They look at Stanislav Galiev, Evgeni Kuznetsov and Jaden Schwartz with this selection but ultimately decide that Burmistrov is their guy.

LOS ANGELES Kings

15th Overall Selection: C Jaden Schwartz – Tri-City (USHL)

Organizational Summary: With one of the top NHL talent pools, the Los Angeles Kings have very good depth and multiple high-end prospects at almost every position. They have skill up front, see Andrei Loktionov, Oscar Moller and Brayden Schenn; they have a stable of up and coming top four defenders, see Thomas Hickey, Slava Voinov and Colten Teubert; and they have a top goaltending prospect in Jonathan Bernier. All this prospect depth and a young NHL roster already full of skill that is just starting to come into its potential. A blue chipper in the net would be nice since Bernier has not taken the top spot over and some doubt he will ever do so. Some more offensive talent on the wings, especially on the left side, would be a nice addition. More depth throughout is what LA will likely be after as they take the best player available.

Pick Summary: The Kings, who have a good stable of prospects, add a skilled and speedy forward who could eventually slide into any role needed whether it is a checking or scoring role. They could have added a goaltender here but like what Jaden Schwartz has to offer too much to pass him up.

ANAHEIM Ducks

16th Overall Selection: C Mikael Granlund – HIFK (Finland)

Organizational Summary: With a young nucleus of forwards already in the NHL, the Anaheim Ducks also have a deep stable of defenders on their way with Luca Sbisa, Jake Gardiner and Mark Mitera looking like future impact players. The Ducks have a few forward prospects with offensive potential in the likes of Kyle Palmieri, Holland and even Matt Beleskey as the majority of depth is character type forwards. The lack of top six potential offensive forward prospects is an area that needs addressing and although they did well last June to start to remedy this, more needs to be done. A blue chip goalie prospect is also lacking.

Pick Summary: The Ducks throw off everyone with this pick of the highly skilled and pint-sized Mikael Granlund. They need to add future scorers to their prospect pool and with the success the franchise has had with the other Finnish flash, Teemu Selanne, they go back too the well. With Brian Burke gone to Toronto so too are a lot of his drafting philosophies like the importance of size and physicality. Now more so the Ducks focus on skating, skill and ones character.

VANCOUVER Canucks

17th Overall Selection: D Jon Merrill – US NDTP U18 (USHL)

Organizational Summary: The Vancouver Canucks have some fine top end talent at the forward position. They have Cody Hodgson, Michael Grabner and Jordan Schroeder as potential to six forwards and a solid goaltending prospect in Cory Schneider. On the backend the top prospects is Yann Sauve who is no sure bet to be a top four NHL defender one day. They need to add depth overall and some high-end prospects on the backend.

Pick Summary: The Canucks are able grab a prospect that they have in their top ten on their draft board in the big mobile rearguard and one who fills an organizational need as well.

COLORADO Avalanche

18th Overall Selection: G Calvin Pickard – Seattle (WHL)

Organizational Summary: The Colorado Avalanche have produced a multitude of young NHLers the last couple season and have almost entirely re-built their roster from the ground up. They have solid depth and some nice high-end prospects coming on the backend like Kevin Shattenkirk, Colby Cohen, Stefan Elliot and Cameron Gaunce. They need to add depth to their forward ranks and a pure goal scorer would look nice playing along side Matt Duchene but the organizations main weakness is lack of a sure fire high-end goaltending prospect.

Pick Summary: The Avalanche look at some of the talent at the forward position left on the board but ultimately decide that they need to take a future puck stopper. Pickard gives them a solid goalie prospect that uses his frame and quick reflexes to play an effective game.

DALLAS Stars

19th Overall Selection: D Jarred Tinordi – US NDTP U18 (USHL)

Organizational Summary: The Dallas Stars have spent the past couple drafts trying to build up the depth that they once had and have had limited success in doing so as they have some fine talent coming up at the forward position. The Stars could use a couple mobile puck moving defenders to add to the development pool as well as depth at the defense position. They also need to add a goaltender of the future as Tyler Beskorowany and Richard Bachman have made doubters out of some.

Pick Summary: Ex-NHL player Mark Tinordi’s son Jarred is the pick here as he bring so much more than just his impressive size, skating ability and solid defensive play. He has some decent offensive upside along with outstanding character and leadership qualities that will likely lead to him being an NHL captain in the future.

BUFFALO Sabres

20th Overall Selection: C Nick Bjugstad – Blaine HS (USHS)

Organizational Summary: The Buffalo Sabres have made a concerned effort to get bigger and they have added a couple very sizable and physical imposing prospects to the organization in six-foot-seven defender Tyler Myers and power forward Zack Kassian. They have some skill at the forward position and a potential suitor to back-up Miller in net with Jonas Enroth. They need to add depth to all positions but mostly on the wings where they are very thin. Goaltending is another area that needs help with just the Swede Enroth having good NHL potential. A big skilled centre to offset the pint sized prospects such as Nathan Gerbe, Tyler Ennis and Paul Byron would be a real treat to have.

Pick Summary: Keeping up with the latest Buffalo trend of drafting big, skilled prospects in the first round (see Kassian and Myers); the Sabres go with the enormous and raw but talented Minnesota high school product Nick Bjugstad.

NEW YORK Rangers

21st Overall Selection: RW Emerson Etem – Medicine Hat (WHL)

Organizational Summary: The New York Rangers have some high-end guys making a run at spots in New York like Michael Del Zotto, Matt Gilroy, Artem Anisimov and Evgeni Gratchev and also some others who are bidding their development time like Ryan McDonagh and Chris Kreider. Overall depth needs to continue to be upgraded as does the search for a potential goalie of the future. For years the Rangers have had loads of home grown character guys moving through the system and not much else.

Pick Summary: The Rangers add a prospect that they see as a potential 30-40 goal man at the NHL level once he fills out and finishes his development in Emerson Etem.

ANAHEIM Ducks (via Philadelphia Flyers **)

22nd Overall Selection: RW Teemu Pulkkinen – Jokerit (Finland)

Pick Summary: The enigma gets scooped up by the Anaheim Ducks in an attempt to hit a home run with this acquired pick. They know he is highly skilled but questions regarding his maturity and willingness to conform to a system still remain. A plus is his chemistry he has shown with their first pick in this draft, countryman Mikael Granlund. The Ducks add more skilled talent, specifically on the wing, to their forward crop with this pick which was specifically the team’s agenda before they entered the draft.

BOSTON Bruins

23rd Overall Selection: D Brock Beukeboom – Sault St. Marie (OHL)

Pick Summary: After taking future NHL scorer Taylor Hall with Toronto’s selection, 2nd overall, the Bruins can address another organizational need in taking a defenseman. They select Brock Beukeboom based on his ability to play a solid two-way game and his pedigree.

PHOENIX Coyotes (via Calgary Flames***)

24th Overall Selection: RW Jeff Skinner – Kitchener (OHL)

Pick Summary: The Phoenix Coyotes are wavering between goalies Maxime Clermont, Louis Domingue and scoring winger Jeff Skinner but decide that Skinner just has too much upside to pass up at this spot and hope to pluck a goalie later in the draft. Skinner fills an organizational need for a fast skilled goal scoring winger.

CHICAGO Blackhawk’s

25th Overall Selection: G Louis Domingue – Moncton (QMJHL)

Organizational Summary: The pipeline of talent keeps bubbling over for the Chicago Black Hawks with a young NHL squad and more contributions at forward and defense yet to come. In net they have Anttii Niemi and Corey Crawford battling for action although goaltending prospect Unice seems to have fallen off. They have no glaring needs in the organization but could use some extra depth on defense and a true top end goaltending prospect in the pipe. Chicago will continue to draft who they see as the best player available, especially considering that because of their on ice success they will be picking later and later each year.

Pick Summary: Chicago loves that a goaltender that they wanted is available when it is their turn up at the podium. Louis Domingue gives the Hawks a prospect that has a good chance of developing into the team’s starter down the line and fills a need in the organization.

NEW JERSEY Devils

26th Overall Selection: G Maxime Clermont – Gatineau (QMJHL)

Organizational Summary: The New Jersey Devils have a few nice prospects at the skating positions that look like they will be real solid NHL citizens once they get there as well as solid depth at all skating positions. This group has a solid mix of two-way contributors. They need to stockpile goaltender prospects as they are extremely weak in this department and they lack that blue chip prospect at most every position.

Pick Summary:  New Jersey thought they would have a choice here between two Quebec league goaltenders in Maxime Clermont and Moncton’s Louis Domingue but after the Hawks pick they decide they need to take a top goalie prospect here and go with Clermont. They realize it is time to look for the successor to the throne and a prospect to try and fill the enormous shoes of Martin Brodeur for the future of the Devils organization.

DETROIT Red Wings

27th Overall Selection: D Kevin Lind – Chicago (USHL)

Organizational Summary: The Detroit Red Wings draft well and have depth at all positions but the main area of strength is in the crease where they have Jimmy Howard, who is getting a good taste of the NHL as Osgood’s backup this season, Thomas McCollum and Daniel Larsson, sharing time in the AHL with Grand Rapids, and previous Notre Dame standout Jordan Pearce developing in the ECHL with Toledo that all look like solid future NHL goaltenders. They also have a few skilled prospects that could develop into top six forwards down the line. After a couple defensive prospects with high upsides such as Jakub Kindl and Brandon Smith in the system, they do not have many sure bets at this position and will likely want to draft more at this position after last years draft haul of forward prospects.

Pick Summary: The Wings draft mantra is to draft smart defenders early and skilled forwards in the mid-to-late rounds. They grab a solid two-way defender with this pick and one that not only doesn’t need to be rushed as he is going the College Hockey route but also one with impressive size which they lack much of in their prospect pool.

WASHINGTON Capitals

28th Overall Selection: C Evgeni Kuznetsov – Traktor (KHL)

Organizational Summary: Goaltending is very solid for the Washington Capitals and is likely to be so for years with Semyon Varlamov already in Washington and more coming up the pipeline, see Michal Neuvirth. They have a few potential impact prospects at the defensive position such as John Carlson, Dmitri Orlov and Karl Alzner. They need depth through out the skating positions as graduation has depleted the high-end talent considerable. They need to continue to add skilled forwards as the Salary Cap will undoubtedly hit their NHL roster sooner rather than later and they will be looking to supplement with cheaper youth.

Pick Summary: Washington has no problem going back to the deep Russian well as they have more incentives than the average NHL team to lour them and keep them in North America, like the chance to play with the world’s top Russian Hockey Player, Alex Ovechkin. Kuznetsov give the Caps a skilled forward in the system that will be a cheap addition once cap trouble starts rearing its head.

SAN JOSE Sharks

29th Overall Selection: RW Nino Niederreiter – Portland (WHL)

Organizational Summary: The goalies of the San Jose Sharks are strong with depth and in high-end talent as at least two of Thomas Greiss, Tyson Sexsmith, Alex Stalock and Harri Sateri look like they will make an NHL impression. They have some nice serviceable forwards coming as well in the likes of the intelligent Logan Couture and hard working Jamie McGinn. Defensive depth once considered strength has taken a beating over the past couple seasons because of trades and graduations therefore; they need to add a high-end prospect or two to the bunch. Also, a high-end offensive winger or two would help solidify the forward group.

Pick Summary: The Sharks look at Ottawa 67’s forward Tyler Toffoli and Saint John import Stanislav Galiev with this pick but like the Swiss ‘Can’t Miss’ Nino Niederreiter’s all-round game and size too much and don’t think he will be around to select later in the draft.

PITTSBURGH Penguins

30th Overall Selection: RW Stanislav Galiev – Saint John (QMJHL)

Organizational Summary: The defending Stanley Cup Champions have a few high-end prospects coming through the system such as Eric Tangradi and Alex Goligoski. They also have some of the best young talent in the NHL. They need to add high-end prospects at the forward position and in net. A pure goal scoring winger to eventually play in their top six is needed.

Pick Summary: The Penguins like Peterborough’s Ryan Spooner a lot but can’t ignore the slide of the highly skilled Stanislav Galiev and see that his skill is a solid fit as a potential future fixture on the wing with Crosby down the line.

* Trade between Boston and Toronto. Boston received a 2010 and 2011 first round picks and a 2010 second round pick for scoring forward Phil Kessel.
** Trade between Anaheim and Philadelphia. Anaheim received 2009 and 2010 first round picks and a conditional 2010 pick along with defender Luca Sbisa and Joffrey Lupul for defender Chris Pronger and Ryan Dingle.
*** Trade between Phoenix and Calgary. Phoenix received 2010 first round pick, forward Matthew Lombardi and prospect Brandon Prust for forward Olli Jokinen and a 2009 third round.

Check back regularly as FC’s resident draft guru Dan Stewart blogs about the 2010 NHL Entry Draft and its prospects each Saturday and intermittently on Wednesdays. Also, be sure to subscribe and order the Future Considerations 2010 NHL Draft Guide that is sure to be the most comprehensive and informative guide on the market.

There is a new Zelda game in the works, but that wasn’t really that big of a surprise. What is interesting is that developer Shigeru Miyamoto’s has recently revealed that the new Zelda will be a “new experience”, whatever he might mean by that.

Nintendo has realised that the Zelda games’ game mechanics are pretty much recycling of the previous game in a new wrapping. This is, of course, something any player with a bit of a mind of his own has spotted a long time ago. Miyamoto wants to re-invent Zelda for 2010; taking the game in a new direction and, as he puts it, surprise the player.

Question is: do players really want Zelda re-invented?

The Zelda formula is definitly a good one, and it works perfectly still after all these years. It is the same old formula, and has been so since the very fist Zelda game was released, and in my opinion it is a formula that really works for the game. It has polished Skinnerian game mechanics, perhaps one of the very first games that really understood the concept of game psychology.

I have to admit, I’m not sure Nintendo wants to tinker with the basic game mechanics here. If it ain’t broke, don’t fix it, as the saying goes.

What might this new approach to Zelda be? Are we speaking more role playing elements? Zelda as a more defined action RPG witht he infamous leveling and loot mechanics? Or is it simply a matter of game control, where the Wiimote is used in a more intelligent way than was the case with Twilight Princess?

Your guess is a good as mine, but I doubt we’ll actually recognise any major changes in the core game design. That would be too dangerous for a market where Zelda is not only the name of a game series, but a trademark of a certain type of gameplay. Does Zelda really need to be re-invented?

If it ain’t broke, fixing it could ruin it.

Wilhelm Wundt

A psicologia estuda o comportamento, os processos mentais, sentimentos, inconsciente, razão, pensamentos, tanto humanos quanto os animais e tenta explicá-los, prevê-los e até os modificar, principalmente quando se trata das patologias. Para isso ela usa varias formas de estudo,  sendo a observação a mais simples e a primeira a ser usada nos estudos clássicos da psicologia. Existem vários métodos para o estudo da mente assim como são variadas as áreas que a psicologia estuda, pois abrange quase todo os processos psíquicos ligados a comportamento e outros mais abstratos como sentimentos e etc.

1 – Wilhelm Wundt

Wiliam James

Criou o primeiro laboratório de psicologia na Alemanha, Universidade de Leipzig, inaugurando ai a psicologia moderna em 1879, graças ao mesmo a psicologia se tornou ciência independente e foram criadas a partir daí formas cientificas de investigação da psicologia por vários autores. A teoria de Wundt foi chamada de Estruturalismo por estudar a estrutura consciente da mente através da introspecção. Tichener nos EUA a modificou um pouco mas a teoria não sobreviveu ao tempo, principalmente por excluir a psicologia animal e infantil.

2 – Wiliam James

O próximo modelo de estudo foi chamado de Funcionalismo de Wiliam James e esta corrente procura a ligação entre os processos mentais e o organismo, incluindo a interação com o meio, surgindo uma idéia de que o meio interfere no desenvolvimento.

3 – Behaviorismo

John B Watsom

Nos Eua no séc XX o Behaviorismo se preocupou com o comportamento observável e usava o condicionamento do ambiente para conseguir um comportamento desejado, idéias criadas por John B Watsom. Ainda tem uma visão pratica da psicologia parecida com a do Funcionalismo, teve foco na aprendizagem, e não acredita ser possível estudar metodicamente a parte subjetiva da pessoa, mas seu comportamento sim.

4 – Skinner

O neocomportamentismo de Skinner que trouxe a cognição a mesa de estudo da psicologia, dizendo que o pensamento era parte do comportamento e que a observação e a investigação do que visualizado pode trazer o aprendizado.

5 – Gestalt

Max Wertheimmer e Kurt Koffka a fundaram, e ela via o homem por completo, como um todo, não como a psicologia de Wundt que dividia a mente em estruturas. Começaram a criar as terapias de campo, a Gestalt-terapia.

Sigmund Freud

6 – Sigmund Freud

 A Psicanálise criada a partir dos estudos da histeria feitos por Freud, onde foi descoberto que histeria era uma doença causada por desajustes mentais e não fisiológicos, fato que foi descoberto com seções de hipnose. O método foi depois abandonado e substituído pela “cura pela fala”, investigando o inconsciente por meio do dialogo. Carl G Jung presidente da sociedade psicanalítica rompe com Freud e cria a psicologia analítica, tentando tirar a sexualidade da analise que era um estudo constante de Freud. Outras teorias , mesmo na área da psicanálise surgiram após a morte de Freud e hoje existem a psicanálise ortodoxa, a analítica e a neopsicanálise.

7 – Carl Rogers

O Humanismo, aglomerado de teorias, tem o enfoque humano da mente, e vêem o homem como detentor da liberdade e da escolha. Carls Rogers psicanalista foi o principal exponente da corrente, que percebeu que a fala livre e a sentimentalidade eram fortes fontes de cura, sendo assim o paciente capaz de se curar sozinho. Surgiu ai uma terapia centrada no cliente (paciente não, pois ele agora é detentor da própria cura). Essas teorias foram usadas em diversas áreas  e apresentaram três conceitos que foram agregados a psicologia a congruência, a empatia, e a aceitação incondicional. Erik Erikson apareceu com a teoria das oito fases psicosociais, duvidando das quatro fases psicosexuais de Freud, para ele o homem sempre se desenvolve. Outros aspectos foram incorporados aos estudos da psicologia como a existência humana e o sentido da vida por Viktor Frankl.

8 – Pirâmide de Maslow

No topo desta pirâmide esta a auto-realizacao, portanto se o homem não detêm o pleno uso das bases, primeiro as necessidades fisiológicas, depois as de segurança, depois as sócias, depois as de auto estima, não chega a auto realização.

9 – Psicologia Transpessoal

Maslow procura introduzir a sua teoria à espiritualidade, criou então uma outra teoria para abranger este aspecto, a Psicologia Transpessoal. Os vários níveis de consciência, dos mais obscuros ao mais iluminado, mais consciente, transpessoal. Porem é uma teoria recente e precisa de mais estudo.

 Áreas de Atuação

Existem varias área em que a psicologia pode ser usada, hoje em dia ela anda de mãos dadas a outros estudos como a sociologia, a pedagogia e a medicina. Surgindo assim varias formas de se usar as teorias psicológicas, no ensino, nos problemas sócias, na medicina como a neuro-ciência, a psicologia Hospitalar e muitas outras aplicações.

VAHN

Download

Just before Skinner’s one-man band took off for the green shores of the UK and India’s intoxicating caste-system, he dropped the |||||| EP — a distorted, electronic three chapter release. Chapter 1: the gripping opening, a careful mix of loud and soft; Chapter 2: the pillow to rest your confused head on; Chapter 3: the violent climax.

Yes, the EP is Fuck Buttons-esque, but that comparison falls apart when Skinner’s deadpan drawl comes funneling in like a post-graduation suicide note. But what’s dead? I reckon it’s free will — delivered a fatal blow by the faceless, will-less, economic recession of 2009. Here Skinner sings for our fate, tied so mercilessly to a system we can’t even understand. In the face of such cruelty, we stand resigned. Lead us, Mr. Skinner.

So I’m writing a post from work today because I was going to write it yesterday at home but actually did stuff like clean out my fridge and wash towels instead. I had a really good weekend. Anyway – today I’m going to talk movies that have stuck in my head for the past however long, and I’ll start with the more recent that I’ve watched.

So let it begin.

The Saturday just gone my sister and I watched How To Be because we are total dorks and Robert Pattinson fans (I swear it’s the only thing me and the world agree on). As for the movie, I liked it but found it a little bit painful to watch. Not painful as poor acting, I didn’t mind the acting at all. It hit a little close to home and reminded me of a point of life I feel like I’ve only just come out of and don’t particularly want to run back to. My take on the film was that it was about that point in life where you’re really confused and beginning to finally understand what being an adult is.  I remember talking to my Dad with similar questions to Art with his, and hitting similar realisations. It was a bit Seinfeld and a movie about nothing while also being about everything. I loved the lack of high note it ended on. I loved the character Nikki – that guy made me forget that the movie had Robert Pattinson in it and I couldn’t help but think that guy (that stereotype) is always in Irish Pubs in Brisbane. I thought the friends would have made a really good BBC TV show. I understand why it wasn’t pushed in theatres everywhere and why it was hard to categorise. It’s a strange film that leaves you feeling a little strange. It in part reminded me of I Heart Huckabees with those really strange moments the self help writer would appear under a light that turned on. And when dealing with the mother character in the movie it felt a little bit theatre and less film. I think I liked the pub scene the most, especially when the new boyfriend is nice and starts to list off his awesomeness. I thought the movie really understood the ‘loser’ without really putting judgement on it by making a miraculous recovery into coolness – there was no ‘he got a hair cut and wrote a good song and all was right in the world when you become cool’ ending. And that is all I’m going to say.

Next. Something I watched recently and hadn’t been able to stop thinking about was Happy Go Lucky. I didn’t watch it from the beginning and I missed the end because I had to pick up the husband but what I did see of it I LOVED and can’t stop thinking about it. Again it’s one of those strange movies that are about nothing as far as events go, and I’m not even sure of the message of the movie. All I know is that the driving teacher was spot on – although mine was Scottish so on top of being a little angry about things I couldn’t understand a word he said. I loved the lead character and how she did very odd things, like following that homeless guy (this is the last part I really got to see) to see if she could help because sometimes I find myself following someone to see where things lead too. I like how the lead character giggled all the time and watching her relationships with family and friends – it left me feeling happy. Now when I see Sally Hawkins in other films I always think of her as Poppy in Happy Go Lucky. I really want to see it again, all the way through.

Ok. Next. Away We Go is one of the movies I saw at BIFF this year and again with being stuck in my head, every now and then themes from this movie sneak into my head and I can’t stop thinking about it. I have to say that I really loved this film. If there was a type of film that got made over and over it would be like this. I love real space, real emotion conveyed. I like actors/directors that at least try to be authentic with their stories. I’m not saying being entertained is fun, I love to be entertained too. But I think these films are just as important as books. One thing I found with Away We Go is that it parallels a little bit of how I feel in my life since I’ve have CP with the Husband. We moved here to Brisbane a few years ago but without the intention of settling, so what we have is a life that needs to be settled without the means to do so yet – so I liked that they found theirs. Another thing I loved about Away We Go is that it didn’t feel over styled. You didn’t feel like they were selling a doona cover or wall lamp to you through it, and movies often don’t really offer you that anymore. And like with The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford (the train hi-jack scene with the light through the trees – the beauty of the movie haunts), the images from the film flick in my head – like the end scene where they look outside from the house, it was beautiful. I hope we see more films explore lifestyles that are different.

Action. Star Trek was really fun and it got my entertained double thumbs up fonz style. I have trouble with time travel films because it gets you thinking about alternative realities and what’s improbable, and because lately I’m feeling very answerless I find those kind of questions a little too much (not to mention I don’t have any education/understanding of those concepts). But the action was great, the cross cultural representation was quite pleasant and could they have picked a better person to play Scotty? I love Simon Pegg. Friends came back from London with Spaced, which was funny but then when his movies started to flood us I was lost to Mr Pegg forever. Back to Star Trek, it was great, cheesy and fun, my only complaint was that it was such an introduction to do a series of films. And Bana as a bad guy was hard for me to deal with after seeing a lot of his butt in the Time Travellers Wife.

Which reminds me. A movie I rented a little while ago and fell in love with was Charlie Bartlett (the lead actor also in Star Trek). I loved this movie so much. I mean it had so many things to comment on but I can’t really think of much right now. Mr Jr. as a principal, hello – best looking principal of all time. Would have totally fantasised about my principal if he’d be anything on Mr Jr., but we had a guy named Fuller who we couldn’t help but draw parallels with Skinner (Australians are the reason the Simpsons still exists I swear, it’s like a religion to us – House of the Simpsons where we pray in ‘Doh’s). I thought the honestly the Mr Jr. brought to his characters’ alcoholism is in part why the man can have such a huge “comeback” (because he has skills – honest to god compelling to watch him skills) and I look forward to buying my tickets and renting his films. My favourite scene in the film had to be when Charlie Bartlett freaked out on Ritalin and played piano in his undies. I totally googled that actor after falling in complete love with the character. I loved Kat Dennings in the film, but I think she’s quite a loveable actor for me. I quite like the girl who represents a girl a little different and I think she held up as Mr Jr’s daughter, there was some honesty to a relationship there without an incestuous vibe (incest vibe: see Heroes and the chemistry between cousins Claire and Peter). Charlie’s house was amazing (love a good house in a film) and the old car he was driven around in reminded me of Wes Anderson stuff. I did find myself drawing comparison between Rushmore and Charlie Bartlett, although they are different. Man I loved Rushmore. Jason Schwartzman is sort of my ideal guy, apart from the fact that he would be way too cool for me to ever know, even when he’s not cool. I mean his family is reason enough of being too cool. His sense of humour is dreamy. I could go with being with a guy that was like him, but the real him would make me feel like a rock next to a mountain. I think I friended him on myspace which is weird. I don’t know why I do that. I like to use myspace to bookmark bands I like but I also seem to have added people like Ashton Kuchter etc. as myspace friends.

And now I’m trying to match myself to famous people I’ll never meet but add (on a strange impulse I can’t explain) to my myspace friends although I’m happily married with a young child and if said actors were standing in a line up with my husband I would always pick the husband because even though sometimes he makes me want to smash him in the head, I passionately love the guy.  So because of the change from poor movie review to devotion of love – I’m going to end my blog before it becomes a fan letter to Jason Schwartzman begging him to never change and lobby for Wes Anderson to make Rushmore 2.

Photo by jenster181

This post is the fourth post in a series of posts I am writing on lessons about managing people from the book Predictably Irrational, by Dan Ariely (for more post in the series, see 1, 2, 3).

In the additions to the 2nd edition Ariely added a chapter called Reflections and Anecdotes about Some of the Chapters. In it, he describes the idea of the schedules of reinforcement, which is a term coined by the behavioral psychologist B. F. Skinner. In simple terms, it means that when and how often we reinforce a behavior can have a dramatic impact on the strength and rate of the recurring appearance of that behavior. We would expect that a constant, fixed reward system will create a more recurring behavior. But what the experiments actually suggest is that variable reinforcements actually are more effective at creating a high steady rate of behavior.

And that got me thinking about how we reward and recognize employees. Do we do it once a year or once a quarter? Do we do it during a quarterly report or an annual meeting of the employees where the employee of the quarter is declared?

We know that predictable rewards are not as effective as unpredictable rewards, but still, most companies and managers stick to a schedule of predictable rewards. Why? Well, my guess is that it is just easier. As a manager, I don’t need to think and worry about my employees all the time. Does it really matter if I do in once every quarter for an hour or if I do it 30 times over the quarter for 2 minutes each time? But, the fact that it is easier does not mean that it is right (like most conventional wisdoms). We know nothing worth gaining is ever gained without effort.

A few posts ago I wrote about an important principle in feedback called – consistency. The same words could be used to describe the right approach for rewards and recognition:

Consistency – feedback should be given all the time. Not at a predetermined time once a quarter. But all along the year. This is where I disagree with Bratz. The question is not whether you had one meaningful conversation with your manager once a quarter. The question is how often during the quarter did you have meaningful conversations with your manager. Conversations that create value for you and are not done just to fill some kind of form or requirement from HR. If constructive feedback is given consistently, the answer will be all the time. And if it is done all the time, there is a high probability that we are dealing with a good boss.

How unpredictable are your rewards?

Elad

At the recent World Cup qualifier in Ukraine a poll among the English journalists present showed that one third believe that Brazil will eventually win the trophy, one third predict that England will lift the cup and one third think that someone else will. To most self-appointed analysts outside England (including this correspondent) this is a ridiculous exaggeration of England’s prospects. It now turns out that science has (kind of) proved that the sceptics are correct.

In a paper published in the October issue of Journal of Applied Statistics G. K. Skinner and G. H. Freeman conclude that the best team (which I would say is Spain, few would say it’s England) has a probability of only 28% of winning the cup, if it reaches the last 16. In reality the probability is lower since there is always a danger of being knocked out at the group stage. And the probability of England winning is again even lower, but the study doesn’t specify just how low.

The basis for their conclusions is the simple fact that the outcome of any football match is uncertain. The best team doesn’t always win. And in the knock-out stages you need to win four straight games to win the cup. In the latest World Cup only 5 games out of 64 had scores that indicated that you (or a gathering of statisticians) could be pretty certain (better than 90% confidence) that the best team won.

Are soccer matches badly designed experiments? by G. K. Skinner and G. H. Freeman (Journal of Applied Statistics).

Burrhus Frederic Skinner (2-03-1904 al 18-08-1990) fue un gran psicólogo. Fue el primero investigar la psicología experimental. Skinner apoyó el conductismo. Escribió trabajos en los cuales propuso el uso extendido de técnicas psicológicas de modificación del comportamiento, principalmente el condicionamiento operante, que tenía como función mejorar la sociedad e incrementar la felicidad humana.

Skinner nació Susquehanna, Pensilvania. Estudió en Nueva York con la intención de convertirse en escritor. Poco después de graduarse intentó formarse como escritor de ficción, pero pronto que ese no era su camino. Durante este periodo, leyó An Outline of Philosophy, de Bertrand Russell, en el cual Russell discutía la filosofía conductista de los psicólogos, especialmente de John B. Watson.

Skinner comenzó a interesarse por los comportamientos y acciones de las personas cuando vio que no tenía talento como escritor. Algunas de sus historias cortas adquirieron un matiz psicótico. Decidió abandonar la literatura y pasar a ser estudiante de psicología en la Universidad de Harvard.

Al terminar su carrera llegó a formar parte de esta institución como investigador, para luego pasar a desarrollar su actividad docente en la Universidad de Minnesota y después en la Universidad de Indiana, antes de volver a Harvard como profesor en 1948, donde ejercería el resto de su vida.Skinner fue objeto de muchos galardones a lo largo de su vida.

Conductismo de Skinner

Skinner fue el principal responsable del conductismo radical y por el desarrollo del análisis del comportamiento aplicado, en la cual se basa en el trabajo con animales y seres humanos basadondese en el aprendizaje. Él condujo el experimento a través de reforzamiento negativo y positivo y demostró el condicionamiento operante, una técnica de modificación de conducta que desarrolló en contraste con el condicionamiento clásico.

Skinner no era partidario por el uso del castigo. Su investigación sugirió que el castigo era una técnica muy ineficaz de controlar la conducta, usado en general para términos de un pequeño cambio en el comportamiento, pero resultando la mayoría de las veces que el sujeto evitará la situación estimular antes que el comportamiento seguido del castigo.

Descubrió el reforzamiento tanto positivo como negativo prueba ser más efectivo para conseguir cambios en la conducta.

Skinner, B. F.  (1948/1976/2005).  Walden Two.  Indianapolis, IN:  Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.

CHAPTER 32 (pp. 267-276)

What remains to be done?  Well, what do you say to the design of personalities?  Would that interest you?  The control of temperament?  Give me the specifications, and I’ll give you the man!  What do you say to the control of motivation, building the interests which will make men most productive and most successful?  Does that seem to you fantastic?  Yet some of the techniques are available, and more can be worked out experimentally.  Think of the possibilities!  A society in which there is no failure, no boredom, no duplication of effort!  (p. 274)

Frazier continues to propose new areas:  cultivation of special abilities; what makes a child’s mind mathematical?  musical?; making better mathematicians, better artists, better craftsmen; improving social and cultural design; the special qualities of the group (communal science); efficient group structure; the Superorganism!

Skinner, B. F.  (1948/1976/2005).  Walden Two.  Indianapolis, IN:  Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.

CHAPTER 24 (pp. 191-196)

The discussion with Frazier veers toward other communities and what Frazier terms, ‘unnatural societies’, such as monasteries and  lamaseries.  In addition, Frazier explains that there are opportunities for the young people of Walden Two to go out into ordinary life and discover some of its qualities.  These outings are completed as exercises or experiments.   Frazier argues that Walden Two does not use propaganda or indoctrination because that would change the experimental nature of the community.

What we are trying to achieve through our cultural experiments in Walden Two is a way of life which will be satisfying without propaganda and for which, therefore, we won’t have to pay the price of personal stultification.  Happiness is our first goal, but an alert and active drive toward the future is our second.  We’ll settle for the degree of happiness which has been achieved in other communities or culture, but we’ll be satisfied with nothing short of the most alert and active group-intelligence yet to appear on the face of the earth.  (p. 194)

We should ruin our whole experiment if we overdoctrinated.  You can’t propagandize and experiment at the same time.  To engineer an attitude in favor of Walden Two would conceal symptoms which are absolutely essential to our psychologists.  Happiness is one of our indicators, and we couldn’t evaluate an experimental culture if the indicator is loaded with propaganda.  It’s no mean achievement to build satisfaction in any way whatsoever; but we want the real thing.  Walden Two must be naturally satisfying.  (p. 195)

CHAPTER 29, (pp. 236-260)

But I [Frazier] did plan Walden Two — not as an architect plans a building, but as a scientist plans a long-term experiment, uncertain of the conditions he will meet but knowing how he will deal with them when they arise.  In a sense, Walden Two is predetermined, but not as the behavior of a beehive is determined.  Intelligence, no matter how much it may be shaped and extended by our educational system, will still function as intelligence.  It will be used to puzzle out solutions to problems to which a beehive would quickly succumb.  What the plan does is to keep intelligence on the right track, for the good of society rather than of the intelligent individual — or for the eventual rather than the immediate good of the individual.  It does this by making sure that the individual will not forget his personal stake in the welfare of society.  (p. 239)

Castle argues that Frazier cannot know the course of humankind.  Frazier argues back that Walden Two as an experiment is in the course of answering the question of the future of humankind.  He adds that he can only do what he is doing now — Castle adds that it is a small minority.

And the majority are in a big quandary [Frazier].  They’re not on the road at all, or they’re scrambling back toward their starting point, or sidling from one side of the road to the other like so many crabs.  What do you think two world wars have been about?  Something as simple as boundaries or trade?   Nonsense.  The world is trying to adjust to a new conception of man in relation to men.  (p. 240)

It’s a little late to be proving that a behavioral technology is well advanced.  How can you deny it?  Many of its methods and techniques are really as old as the hills.  Look at their frightful misuse in the hands of the Nazis!  And what about the techniques of the psychological clinic?  What about education?  Or religion?  Or practical politics?  Or advertising and salesmanship?  Bring them all together and you have a sort of rule-of-thumb technology of vast power.  No, Mr. Castle, the science is there for the asking.  But its techniques and methods are in the wrong hands — they are used for personal aggrandizement in a competitive world or, in the case of the psychologist and educator, for futilely corrective purposes.   My question is, have you the courage to take up and wield the science of behavior for the good of mankind?  You answer that you would dump it in the ocean!  (p. 241)

Castle and Frazier enter into a discussion about the determinants of freedom.  Frazier call them “determiners of human behavior” (p. 243).

One class, as you suggest, is physical restraint — handcuffs, iron bars, forcible coercion.  These are ways in which we shape human behavior according to our wishes.  They’re crude, and they sacrifice the affection of the controllee, but they often work.  Now, what other ways are there of limiting freedom?  (p. 243)

The Narrator answers, “The threat of force would be one.”

Right.  And here again we shan’t encourage any loyalty on the part of the controllee.  He has perhaps a shade more of the feeling of freedom, since he can always ‘choose to act and accept the consequences,’ but he doesn’t feel exactly free.  He knows his behavior is being coerced.  Now what else?  (p. 243)

Frazier describes Castle as neither a good behaviorist nor a good Christian!  “You have no feeling for a tremendous power of a different sort” (p. 243).

It’s what the science of behavior calls ‘reinforcement therapy.’  The things that can happen to us fall into three classes.  To some things we are indifferent.  Other things we like — we want them to happen, and we take steps to make them happen again.  Still other things we don’t like — we don’t want them to happen and we take steps to get rid of them or keep them from happening again.  (p. 244)

. . . if it’s in our power to create any of the situations which a person likes or to remove any situation he doesn’t like, we can control his behavior.  When he behaves as we want him to behave, we simply create a situation he likes, or remove one he doesn’t like.  As a result, the probability that he will behave that way again goes up, which is what we want.  Technically, it’s called ‘positive reinforcement.’ (p. 244)

Frazier explains that the old school made the mistake of believing that by removing a situation the subject likes (or applying punishment that isn’t liked) it was possible to control behavior.

What is emerging at this critical stage in the evolution of society is a behavioral and cultural technology based on positive reinforcement alone.  We are gradually discovering — at an untold cost in human suffering — that in the long run punishment doesn’t reduce the probability that an act will occur. . . . Retribution and revenge are the most natural things on earth.  But in the long run the man we strike is no less likely to repeat his act.  (p. 245)

After much discussion of democracy, the conversation turns to Russia.  (Remember this was originally written in 1945 or so, and revised in 1975.)  Frazier contends there are “only” four things wrong with Russia:  (a)  a decline in the experimental spirit; (b)  overpropagandized both its own people and the outside world; (c) its use of heroes; and (d) the Russian experiment is based upon power (pp. 258-259).

The Russians are still a long way from a culture in which people behave as they want to behave, for their mutual good.  In order to get its people to act as the communist pattern demands, the Russian government has had to use the techniques of capitalism.  On the one hand it resorts to extravagant and uneven rewards.  But an unequal distribution of wealth destroys more incentives than it creates.  It obviously can’t operate for the common good.  On the other hand, the government also uses punishment or the threat of it.  What kind of behavioral engineering do you call that?  (p. 260)

Skinner, B. F.  (1948/1976/2005).  Walden Two.  Indianapolis, IN:  Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.

CHAPTER 23 (pp. 179-190)

Government and politics!  It’s not a problem of government and politics at all.  That’s the first plank in the Walden Two platform.  You can’t make progress toward the Good Life by political action!  Not under any current form of government!  You must operate upon another level entirely.  What you need is a sort of Nonpolitcal Action Committee:  keep out of politics and away from government except for practical and temporary purposes.  It’s not the place for men of good will or vision.  (p. 180)

…we aren’t making war!  We have no imperialist policy — no designs on the possessions of others — no interest in foreign trade except to encourage happiness and self-sufficiency.  What is Walden Two but a grand experiment in the structure of a peaceful world?  Point to any internationalist who really knows what sort of society or culture or government will make for peace.  He doesn’t know!  He’s only guessing!  Through the machinations of power politics he may, if he’s lucky, get an experimental test under way, but almost certainly in such a form that the outcome will prove nothing.  He may, through some colossal accident, achieve world peace, perhaps permanently.  But the chance is negligible.  World politics won’t yield the kind of data necessary for a scientific solution of the basic problems.  What do people want?  What will satisfy them?  How can they be made to want what they can get?  Or how can they get what they want without taking it away from anyone else?  I could go on asking questions like that all day.  And who has the answer to one of them?  Not the politicians!  (p. 189)

Skinner, B. F.  (1948/1976/2005).  Walden Two.  Indianapolis, IN:  Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.

CHAPTER 19 (pp. 142-145)

CHAPTER 20 (pp. 146-166)

I mean the minimum [of unpleasant labor] which is possible without imposing on anyone.  We must always think of the whole group.  I don’t mean tha twe want to be inactive — we have proved that idleness doesn’t follow.  But painful or uninteresting work is a threat to both physical and psychological health  Our plan was to reduce unwanted work to a minimum, but we wiped it out.  Even hard work is fun if it’s not beyond our strength and we don’t have too much of it.  A strong man rejoices to run a race or split wood or build a wall.  When we’re not being imposed on, when we choose our work freely, then we want to work.  We may even search for work when a scarcity threatens.  (p. 147)

We can freely admit that we like to work.  Can you believe that we don’t need to keep an accurate account of each man’s contribution?  Or that most of us have stored up enough spare credits to take a long vacation if we liked?  (p. 148)

The Good Life also means a chance to exercise talents and abilities.  And we have let it be so.  We have time for sports, hobbies, arts and crafts, and most important of all, the expression of that interest in the world which is science in the deepest sense. . . . . And we need intimate and satisfying personal contacts.  We must have the best possible chance of finding congenial spirits.  Our Social Manager sees to that with many ingenious devices.  And we don’t restrict personal relations to conform to outmoded customs.  We discourage attitudes of domination and criticism.  Our goal is a general tolerance and affection.  (p. 148)

Last of all, the Good Life means relaxation and rest.  We get that in Walden Two almost as a matter of course, but not merely because we have reduced our hours of work.  In the world at large the leisure class is perhaps the least relaxed.  The important thing is to satisfy our needs.  Then we can give up the blind struggle to ‘have a good time’ or ‘get what we want.’  We have achieved a true leisure.  (p. 148)

The Walden Code:

One:  “Don’t talk to outsiders about the affairs of the community.”

Two:  “Don’t gossip about the personal relations of members.”

Three:  “Don’t say ‘thank you’.”?

Apprenticeship Rule:  “Explain your work to any member who is interested.”

Skinner, B. F.  (1948/1976/2005).  Walden Two.  Indianapolis, IN:  Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.

CHAPTER 16 (pp. 119-127)

As the visitors were walking to lunch, they noticed a young couple with their first child.  It turns out that the girl is sixteen.  Frazier explains, “the average age of the Walden Two mother is eighteen at the birth of her first child, and we hope to bring the figure down still further.  The war interfered a bit there.  I believe the girl you saw was sixteen when her baby was born.”  (p. 119)

There is no excuse for the usual delay in getting married or the still greater delay in bearing children — (p. 119)

Certainly most girls are ready for childbearing at fifteen or sixteen. We like to ridicule ‘puppy love.’ We say it won’t last, and judge its depth accordingly.  Well, of course it won’t last!  A thousand forces conspire against it.  And they are not the forces of nature, either, but of a badly organized society.  The boy and girl are ready for love.  They will never have the same capacity for love again.  And they are ready for marriage and childbearing.  It’s all part of the same thing.  But society never lets them prove it.  (p. 121)

Sex is no problem in itself.  Here the adolescent finds an immediate and satisfactory expression of his natural impulses.  It’s a solution which is productive, honorable, and viewed by the community with admiration and pride.  How very different from the secrecy and shame which most of us recall in connection with sex at some time or other!  Adolescence is seldom pleasant to remember, it’s full of unnecessary problems, unnecessary delays.  It should be brief and painless, and we make it so in Walden Two.  (pp. 121-122)

When a young couple become engaged, they go to our Manager of Marriages.  Their interests, school records, and health are examined.  If there’s any great discrepancy in intellectual ability or temperament they are advised against marrying.  The marriage is at least postponed, and that usually means it’s abandoned.  (p. 125)

CHAPTER 17 (pp. 128-137)

The significant history of our times is the story of the growing weakness of the family.  The decline of the home as a medium for perpetuating a culture, the struggle for equality for women, including their right to select professions other than housewife or nursemaid, the extraordinary consequences of birth control and the practical separation of sex and parenthood, the social recognition of divorce, the critical issue of blood relationship or race — all these are parts of the same field.  And you can hardly call it quiescent.

A community must solve the problem of the family by revising certain established practices.  That’s absolutely inevitable.  The family is an ancient form of community, and the customs and habits which have been set up to perpetuate it are out of place in a society which isn’t based upon blood ties.  Walden Two replaces the family, not only as an economic unit, but to some extent as a social and psychological unit as well.  What survives is an experimental question.  (p. 128)

One of the experimental questions that they’ve answered is separate rooms for husband and wife.  In addition, there is a great deal of emphasis on friendship and intimacy.  Another experimental question answered at Walden Two is group care for children over parental care.  “Our goal is to have every adult member of Walden Two regard all our children as his own, and to have every child think of every adult as his parent” (p. 132).

Skinner, B. F.  (1948/1976/2005).  Walden Two.  Indianapolis, IN:  Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.

CHAPTER 14 (pp. 95-106)

What Frazier calls “ethical training” is completed by or before age six.  Children are taken through a series of trainings to provide them with the opportunity to develop self-control.  For instance, there is the Forbidden Soup exercise.  Children are brought in from play, very tired and hungry, and asked to stand for five minutes in front of bowls of hot soup.  When they can stand for five minutes in front of the soup, then only half of the children are allowed to sit down and eat.  The rest must stand for another five minutes.  Eventually, they must stand quietly or silently for the full five minutes.   These exercise are meant to force the children to find within themselves the means by which to control themselves and their emotions.

CHAPTER 15 (pp. 107-118)

The control of the physical and social environment, of which Frazier had made so much, was progressively relaxed — or, to be more exact, the control was transferred from the authorities to the child himself and to the other members of his group.  After spending most of the first year in an air-conditioned cubicle, and the second and third mainly in an air-conditioned room with a minimum of clothing and bedding, the three- or four-year-old was introduced to regular clothes and given the care of a small standard cot in a dormitory.  The beds of the five- and six-year-olds were grouped by threes and fours in a series of alcoves furnished like rooms and treated as such by the children.  Groups of three or four seven-year-olds occupied small rooms together, and this practice was continued, with frequent change of roommates, until the children were about thirteen, at which time they took temporary rooms in the adult building, usually in pairs.  At marriage, or whenever the individual chose, he could participate in building a larger room for himself or refurnishing an old room which might be available.  (p. 107)

We can adopt the best educational methods and still avoid the administrative machinery which schools need in order to adjust to an unfavorable social structure.  We don’t have to worry about standardization in order to permit pupils to transfer from one school to another, or to appraise or control the work of particular schools.  We don’t need grades.  Everyone knows that talents and abilities don’t develop at the same rate in different children.  A fourth-grade reader may be a sixth-grade mathematician.  The grade is an administrative device which does violence to the nature of the developmental process.  Here the child advances as rapidly as he likes in any field.  No time is wasted in forcing him to participate in, or be bored by, activities he has outgrown.  And the backward child can be handled more efficiently too.  (pp. 109-110)

Education in Walden Two is part of the life of the community.  We don’t need to resort to trumped-up life experiences.  Our children begin to work at a very early age.  It’s no hardship; it’s accepted as readily as sport of play.   And a good share of our education goes on in workshops, laboratories, and fields.  It’s part of the Walden Two Code to encourage children in all the arts and crafts.  We’re glad to spend time in instructing them, for we know it’s important for the future of Walden Two and our own security.  (p. 110)

We have no more reason to distinguish between college and high school than between high school and grade school.  What are these distinctions, anyway, once you have separated education fro the administration of education?  Are there any natural breaks in a child’s development?  Many of our children naturally study more and more advanced material as they grow older.  We help them in every way short of teaching them.  We give them new techniques of acquiring knowledge and thinking.  In spite of the beliefs of most educators, our children are taught to think.  We give them an excellent survey of the methods and techniques of thinking, taken from logic, statistics, scientific method, psychology, and mathematics.  That’s all the college education they need.  They get the rest by themselves in our libraries and laboratories.  (p. 111)

Our laboratories are good because they are real.  Our workshops are really small engineering laboratories, and anyone with a genuine bent can go farther in them than the college student.  We teach anatomy in the slaughterhouse, botany in the field, genetics in the dairy and poultry house, chemistry in the medical building and in the kitchen and dairy laboratory.  What more can you ask?  (p. 112)

Education is part of the community.  It doesn’t stop.  A cap and gown, a diploma have little meaning in such a culture or society.  In addition, Frazier explains to the visitors that children are naturally curious and want to learn.  There is little in their Walden Two experience that would discourage a child or keep a child from learning; therefore, external motivation is also not needed.

Skinner, B. F.  (1948/1976/2005).  Walden Two.  Indianapolis, IN:  Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.

CHAPTER 12 (pp. 86-90)

She opened a door and allowed us to look into a small room, three walls of which were lined with cubicles, each with a large glass window.  Behind the windows we could see babies of various ages.  None of them wore more than a diaper, and there were no bedclothes.  In one cubicle a small red newborn as asleep on it stomach.  Some of the older babies were awake and playing with toys.  Near the door a baby on all fours pressed its nose agains the glass and smiles at us.  (p. 87)

When a baby graduates from our Lower Nursery…it knows nothing of frustration, anxiety, or fear  It never cries except when sick, which is very seldom, and it has a lively interest in everything.  (p. 88)

I suppose you’d like to have them know how much work is saved.  Since the air is filtered, we only bathe the babies once a week, and we never need to clean their nostrils or eyes.  There are no beds to make, of course.  And it’s easy to prevent infection.  the compartments are soundproofed, and the babies sleep well and don’t disturb each other.  We can keep them on different schedules, so the nursery runs smoothly.  (p. 89)

CHAPTER 13 (pp. 91-94)

The quarters for children from one to three consisted of several small playrooms with Lilliputian furniture, a child’s lavatory, and a dressing and locker room.  Several small sleeping rooms were operated on the same principle as the baby-cubicles.  The temperature and the humidity were controlled so that clothes or bed-clothing were not needed.  The cots were double-decker arrangement of the plastic mattresses we had seen in the cubicles.  The children slept unclothes, except for diapers  There were more beds than necessary, so that the children could be grouped according to developmental age or exposure to contagious diseases or need for supervision, or for educational purposes.  (p. 91)

After the tour of the Upper Nursery, the group began a discussion of how Walden Two eliminates emotions.  That discussion continues in Chapter 14.

Skinner, B. F.  (1948/1976/2005).  Walden Two.  Indianapolis, IN:  Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.

CHAPTER 11 (pp. 77-85)

‘Take music, for example,’ he resumed.  ‘If you live in Walden Two and like music, you may go as far as you like.  I don’t mean a few minutes a day — I mean all the time and energy you can give to music and remain healthy.  If you want to listen, there’s an extensive library of records and, of course, many concerts, some of them quite professional.  All the good radio programs are broadcat over the system of loudspeakers that we call the Walden Network, and they are monitored to remove the advertising.  (p. 82)

‘If you want to perform, you can get instruction on almost any instrument from other members — who get credits for it.  If you have any ability, you can soon find an audience.  We all go to concerts.  We’re never too tired, and the night is never to cold or too wet.  Even our amateurs are quite popular, though usually with other amateurs — taking in each other’s washing, so to speak.  There’s an atrocious military band with a repertoire in the narrow range between Sousa and von Suppe.   But we have excellent string ensembles, and a very good small symphony orchestra.  (p. 82)

“Leisure.  Opportunity.  Appreciation.” (p. 84).  Frazier’s reply to the observation that the conditions for artistic achievement at Walden Two were amazing.

Skinner, B. F.  (1948/1976/2005).  Walden Two.  Indianapolis, IN:  Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.

CHAPTER 8 (pp. 45-59)

Since I’ve been considering land communities as a possible future home for many years, I am familiar with Twin Oaks’ labor system.  The Twin Oaks system comes from this book and is explained quite clearly in this chapter.  Basically, since the community provides everything and serves all members fairly and equally, the need for labor is less than it would be if each member or member family were living in the ordinary world.

There are Planners, Managers, and Scientists who you might consider “the elite.”  Everyone else is a “Worker.”  Four hours of labor per day is required.  Each job is given a market value (in time) and therefore, the jobs that no one wants to do (cleaning the sewer = 1 1/2 credits per hour) are given more labor credit than the jobs everyone wants to do (gardening = 1 credit per hour).  Planners are chosen for ten years or less; Managers work their way up by demonstrating responsibility and care for the welfare of the community; Scientists conduct experiments and keep data on how various aspects of the community are running/operating.  Everyone else as a “Worker” fulfills all other responsibilities.

Skinner, B. F.  (1948/1976/2005).  Walden Two.  Indianapolis, IN:  Hackett Publishing Company, Inc.

How were people to be induced to use new forms of energy, to eat grain rather than meat, and to limit the size of their families; and how were atomic stockpiles to be kept out of the hands of desperate leaders?  (p. vii)

How many Americans can say that they are doing the kinds of things they are best qualified to do and most enjoy doing?  What opportunities have they had to choose fields related to their talents or to teh interests and skills they acquired in early life?  (p. xii)

And once one is lucky enough to be doing what one likes, what are the chances of being successful?  How easily can artists, composers, and writes bring their work to the attention of those who will enjoy it and whose reactions will shape behavior in creative ways?  (p. xiii)

How can we preserve the peace of the world if we do not possess the most powerful weapons, together with an industry that continues to develop even more powerful ones?  (p. xiv)

Suppose we do know what is needed for the good life; how are we to bring it about?  (p. xv)

How much suffering can on impose upon those now living for the sake of those who will follow?  And can we be sure that those who follow will be any better off?  (p. xvi)

Taken from the Preface by B. F. Skinner, January, 1976

Mike has popped up once before at Grime Garms, featuring in the Money Clothing article. We stated then, that we know Mike aka The Streets isn’t Grime, but Garage. Either way, we’re a big fan of his work here at Grime Garms, plus, I’m sure a lot of you Grimeheads are too. So, why not involve him again?

This time, Mr. Skinner is featuring in a ‘When We Were Casuals’ white t-shirt. I’m pretty sure, unless you go to football matches, wear Stone Island, have a skinhead and wear Reebok Classics, you won’t know about this brand. I came across the site WhenWeWereCasuals.com a few years back now. This is I believe after seeing a top of theirs featured in Nuts. You know the ‘fashion’ section? If you don’t, honestly, what magazine do you read?! Anyway, after seeing the t-shirt, I headed over to the site. The website contains brands such as Lyle & Scott, Stone Island, and even their own self titled brand of clothing. Clearly, as the brand name is stated, aiming at ‘the casuals’. The ones who used to go down to Millwall or West Ham during the 1990’s. Everyone knows the standard looking casual. It seems Mike is a keen follower of this trend, as you can see in the picture.

Holding a horse whip it looks like, and smiling at a burning piece of only Mike knows what. What a way to spend a night eh? Skinner this time is seen in a white No. 5 Casual – Paris tee. The style being a very typical classic casual style design. Basic, with not too many thrills or colours. Simple. The RRP is £30. Sadly, sold out due to popular demand. To get a better look, click here. While you’re on the website, why not have a browse around at other pieces of clothing, and even the blog?

Remember, the October competition is still on-going, and voting for November’s competition prize has already started. Visit the forum. A link is at the top of the page.

-  Graeme Day

*Por Alessandro Vieira

Já rendeu prêmio Nobel para um psicólogo, tem por objeto de estudo o comportamento (econômico) numa abordagem científica e vê o mundo como uma rede de incentivos, reforços e aprendizagem. Se você acha que estou falando da Análise Experimental do Comportamento, errou: é da Economia Comportamental. “Ué”, você pode estar se perguntando, “Qual a diferença?”.

Coisa de Psicólogo ou de Economista?

Em 2002, Daniel Kahneman, psicólogo israelense ganha o prêmio Nobel de Economia por suas pesquisas a respeito do comportamento econômico. (Aliás, foi o primeiro Nobel conferido a um psicólogo e esse fato passou em brancas nuvens, sem a comemoração que merecia!). Em 2006 um importante economista dos EUA, Steven Levitt publica uma obra de divulgação científica que virou bestseller mundial: Freaknomics, onde uma visão da Economia centrada no comportamento humano, e não em abstratas cifras e índices, é exposta. Parece curioso, mas tanto Kahneman, psicólogo, quanto Levitt economista, estão falando do mesmo assunto: Economia Comportamental.

Incentivos, Interesses, Decisões

Diferente da visão que o brasileiro tem da Economia (basicamente monetária e extremamente hermética, conforme reza a tradição acadêmica latina), os cientistas dos EUA e Israel defendem que essa disciplina científica é na verdade o estudo da dinâmica de interesses, motivações e decisões de pessoas em grupo. Por exemplo, seria uma questão genuinamente econômica: “Como três garotos devem fazer para dividir duas barras de chocolate, sendo dois deles egoistas e um altruista?”

Portanto, a Economia não seria apenas uma forma de gerenciar recursos escassos (sua definição clássica, de Adam Smith e afins), mas seria também o estudo de como motivações afetam a decisão de indivíduos e grupos.

Na visão Econômica Comportamental as sociedades são uma complexa rede de incentivos onde os participantes compartilham da mesma motivação fundamental: a busca de valor para suas vidas (entendendo por “valor” maximizar ganhos e minimizar perdas). Lembre-se que nessa Economia, dinheiro é apenas um detalhe. O dito “valor” pode significar meio ambiente, estética, amor, amizade, saúde, ética, etc. Enfim, são valores humanos. Assim, por exemplo, um Economista Comportamental pode estudar a dinâmica da sedução masculina, tomando o valor “beleza feminina” como critério de análise. De fato, a Economia Comportamental tem rendido estudos curiosos. Levitt, em Freaknomics, chega a demonstrar “por A mais B” porque é um bom negócio para traficantes de trinta anos de idade morar com suas mães! (Dentre outras teses aparentemente estapafúrdias que você e se pergunta “Nossa, isso é Economia ou Psicologia?”).

A essa altura você pode estar se dizendo: “Já vi isso antes…” As semelhanças com a proposta filosófica de Skinner, o Behaviorismo, não param por aí. Continue lendo.

Sentimentos Interferem na Economia?

As pesquisas de Kahneman questionam a Economia Clássica e sua visão simplista de Homem. Na dita Economia Clássica o Homem é um ser infinitamente racional que toma decisões econômicas visando sempre o seu próprio bem. (Isto é, o Homem é inteligente, egoísta e sensato).

Kahneman demonstrou, e vem daí o seu Nobel, que as pessoas, em meio a situações econômicas (poupar, gastar, investir, etc) muitas vezes não são racionais, nem egoístas e nem sensatas. Entre a situação econômica e a resposta emitida há processos comportamentais que Kahneman apelidou de “viéses psicológicos”. Sua obra é uma dissecação desses viéses, que são uma espécie de filtro decisório que se mescla à racionalidade lógico-matemática na hora tomar decisões econômicas. Por exemplo, nossos comportamentos econômicos são influenciados por nossa auto-imagem (“Sou mesmo o bom em finanças. Nada pode me deter!”), pelo que aprendemos por comunicação social (“Meu primo me disse que devo começar a investir na Bolsa”), por ilusões de controle (“Se deu certo antes, vai dar certo sempre”), por estados de ânimo e humor(“Melhor não ir comprar nada hoje, estou deprimida e farei um estrago na loja”), etc.

O economista comportamental é alguém que leva em conta os viéses psicológicos das pessoas e analisa a contingências envolvidas nas situações como redes de incentivos que interferem nas decisões. Por exemplo: “Martha é uma jovem investidora da Bolsa que, por razões de auto-estima elevada, ilusão de controle do ambiente e entusiasmo emprestado dos amigos, resolve arriscar mais que podia. Que sistema de incentivo poderia ser criado para evitar que Martha e pessoas com o mesmo perfil agisse de tal forma?”

Pára! Isso não é Análise Experimental do Comportamento?

Levitt, apesar de ser dos EUA, a terra de Skinner e até hoje o grande centro do Behaviorismo, não fala uma palavra sequer sobre o Behaviorismo & CIA. Kahneman se diz um cognitivo-comportamental, e não um behaviorista, e não cita muito a obra de Skinner em suas pesquisas. Parece que esses autores fazem questão de associar a Economia Comportamental a matemática da Teoria dos Jogos, que também rendeu um Nobel de Economia.
Contudo, ao aplicado e dileto estudante de Psicologia é impossível ler sobre a Economia Comportamental e não lembrar de Skinner, que fala o tempo inteiro em sua obra a respeito de incentivos sociais, e chega a dizer que a Análise Experimental do Comportamento teria mais a contribuir a Política e às instituições econômicas do que a terapia. Ele chegou a falar em uma engenharia comportamental que iria modelar, dentre outras coisas, sistemas de incentivo econômico.

E as Diferenças?

O Analista do Comportamento não restringe seu trabalho a fatos econômicos, ao passo que o Economista Comportamental está exclusivamente atento para o que pode observar em termos de ações como poupar, investir, gastar, etc. Talvez esse recorte de realidade seja a maior diferença entre os dois grupos. Outra diferença seria o fato do Analista se apoiar em uma filosofia para seu trabalho (o Behaviorismo). Na Análise do Comportamento os sentimentos, a linguagem e outros fenômenos afins são também muito mais estudados que na Economia Comportamental, já contando com muito conhecimento sistematizado a respeito.

Conclusões:

Seja como for, isto é, seja a Economia Comportamental uma cria que não assume sua genealogia, ou seja, ela algo mesmo inédito, seu advento tem uma utilidade muito grande para Analistas do Comportamento em geral: evidenciar que Skinner tinha razão ao dizer que a terapia seria apenas uma das aplicações possíveis da Análise do Comportamento.

*Alessandro Vieira dos Reis é psicólogo, trabalha com Interação Humano-Computador e Gestão de Pessoas em organizações. Na área de interação entre Psicologia e Tecnologias Digitais, desenvolveu trabalho com Usabilidade, Design de Educação a Distância e Game Designer.

FONTE: Rede Psi

Rogers, Carl and Freiberg, H. Jerome.  (1994).  Freedom to Learn, 3rd edition.  Upper Saddle River, New Jersey:  Prentice-Hall.

Using the “Guiding Essential Questions” from the EDCI-886, Philosophy of American Education, Fall 2009 syllabus, I describe some of the “big ideas” from Freedom to Learn.

The Philosophical and Value Ramifications (cont)

CHAPTER 15, Freedom and commitment

“Freedom to learn or choose; self-directed learning:  these are completely untenable concepts in the minds of many behavioral scientists, who believe that humans are simply the inevitable products of their conditioning.  Yet they are terms that I have used freely in this book, as though they have real meaning. . . . I do not pretend that I resolved the age-old problem of freedom and determinism, but I have, for myself, formulated a way of living with it.  I hope my statement will be clarifying to those who are perplexed by differences between the mechanistic-behavioristic point of view in education and the humanistic approach to learning.”  (p. 295)

“One of the deepest issues in modern life is the question as to whether the concept of personal freedom has any meaning whatsoever in our present-day scientific world.  The growing ability of the behavioral scientist to predict and to control behavior has brought the issue sharply to the fore.  If we accept the logical positivism and strictly behavioristic emphases that are predominant in the American educational scene, there is not even room for discussion.  But if we step outside the narrowness of the behavioral sciences, this question is not only an issue; it is one of the primary issues that define the modern person.”  (p. 296)

“One might ask, ‘Why do teachers and other educators need to know these things?’  If we take a mechanical view of teaching, then one skilled teacher is the same as any other skilled teacher.  When a teacher leaves, we replace her with another person called ‘teacher,’ and all is well. . . . In this system, teachers are interchangeable parts.”  (p. 296)

“From the way students are disciplined to the way teachers are evaluated, the method is one of control, reward, and punishment.  So writing both as a behavioral scientist and as one profoundly concerned with the human, the personal, the phenomenological, and the intangible, I should like to contribute what I can to this continuing dialogue regarding the meaning of and the possibility of freedom.  For if we see teaching as a facilitative process in which the individual is valued, then the words freedom and commitment take on very vital meanings.”  (p. 296)

The Individual is Unfree

“In the minds of most behavioral scientists, humans are not free; nor can they as free humans commit themselves to some purpose, for they are controlled by factors outside of themselves.  Therefore, neither freedom nor commitment is even a possible concept to modern behavioral science as it is usually understood.”  (p. 297)

“This view is shared by some psychologists, educators, and other who feel, as did Dr. Skinner that all the effective causes of behavior lie outside of the individual and that it is only through the external stimulus that behavior takes place.”  (p. 297)

The Individual is Free

“The need to have choices in the classroom is just as important in the evolution of healthy individuals.  If all part of a child’s life are controlled, then control becomes the driving force in decisions about teaching and learning.  What is taught and how it will be taught become controlling issues.  After the child’s learning life is controlled for thirteen years in school, suddenly at age eighteen he or she is free to choose.  The newfound freedom comes with little or no prior experience.  If experience is the best teacher, then choosing and freedom are alien experiences for too many students in our schools.”  (p. 302)

BIG IDEA

• a sense of free and responsible choice on the part of teachers and students in schools

The Irreconcilable Contradiction

“I trust it will be very clear that I have given two sharply divergent and irreconcilably contradictory points of view.  On the one hand, modern psychological science, and many other forces in modern life as well, hold the view that the person is unfree, that she is controlled, that words such as purpose, choice, commitment have no significant meaning, that the individual is nothing but an object that we can more fully understand and more fully control.”  (p. 308)

“So I am emboldened to say that over against this view of the individual as unfree, as an object, is the evidence from therapy, from the schoolhouse, from subjective living, and from objective research as well that personal freedom and responsibility have a crucial significance, that one cannot live a complete life without such personal freedom and responsibility, and that self-understanding and responsible choice make a sharp and measurable difference in the behavior of the individual.  In this context, commitment does have meaning.  Commitment is the emerging and changing total direction of the individual based on a close and acceptant relationship between the person and all of the trends of his or her life, conscious and unconscious.”  (p. 309)

“What is the answer to the contradiction I have described?  For myself, I am content to think of it as a deep and lasting paradox. . . often frustrating . . . very fruitful.”  (p. 309)

BIG IDEAS

• personal freedom and responsibility lead to self-understanding and responsible choice
• purpose, choice, and commitment have significant meaning in the classroom to both students and teachers

Brameld, Theodore.  (2008).  The use of explosive ideas in education:  Culture, class, and evolution.  New York:  The New Press.

Knowledge in the process of culture

“How do we acquire culture?  Clearly, the central answer is:  through learning.  Here, then, is enough reason for relating that branch of philosophy called ‘epistemology’ to the acquiring process.  If we acquire through learning, are we not then involved in knowledge-getting or, still more simply, knowing?  And when we are knowing, are we not inescapably engaged in truth-seeking as well?” (p. 54)

“Thus, epistemology, as the philosophic study of the criteria of knowledge, appears in the perspective of culture as a quite different discipline than it does at the hands of formal philosophers.  Epistemology is the handmaiden of cultural acquiring, just as ontology, the philosophic study of reality, is the handmaiden of cultural order.”  (p. 54)

“But how can we know reliably or truly?  This question can be effectively answered only when it is determined how learning takes place in culture.  Here, we return to metacultural assumptions.  Just a little investigation reveals that the scientists of culture no more proceed from the same metacultural assumptions when they try to resolve issues of learning and knowledge than they do in the case of cultural reality.”  (p. 54)

“…quite a number of anthropologists regard the learning process as chiefly one of conditioning.  Any student of psychology at once recognizes here the general and loosely bounded position known as behaviorism — namely, the position that human beings, like all animals, learn by responding to the stimuli of an outside environment.”  (p. 55)

“Psychoanalysis focuses upon another and very important way in which conditioning occurs — that is, through largely unconscious influences induced especially by parents in the first years of life, but also continuously by other members of the culture and subculture to which every human being belongs.  Learning, according to this theory, is primarily a process of personality formation by way of emotional responses to the stimuli of those individuals and groups closest to the child.”  (p. 55)

“The connection of learning as conditioning to the superorganic theory of cultural order should at once become apparent.  Realists, particularly, tend to support a stimulus-response theory of learning and therefore to presuppose that the individual is exposed to the attitudes and habits of a culture through processes that are reinforced by repetition, by the pleasures of reward and the pains of punishment. . . . Clark Hull and Frederick Skinner . . . .”  (p. 55)

“More strictly in terms of epistemology, the metacultural assumption of behaviorists is something like this:  truth is the product of man’s effective grasp of the basic rules, skills, customs, and knowledge already embodied in the given objective reality, including the reality of culture.  Educationally, the acquiring process is chiefly one of adjustment. . . . the behaviorist is an ally . . . of the kind of educator who believes that the school is primarily an agency of cultural reinforcement.” (pp. 55-56)

“According to this second view, man acquires by a process of inquiring into the nature of his culture.  And inquiring, as John Dewey implies . . . , is man’s capacity to engage actively and critically in the events of his cultural experience — to take them apart, as it were, and to rearrange them in more satisfying, efficient, workable ways than before.”  (p. 56)

“. . . the second viewpoint (which we may call functionalism) thinks of mind more as a verb than as a noun — that is, as a special way of acting called ‘inquiring’ or ‘intelligent functioning.’ . . . . In Dewey’s terms, human beings carry on transactions with their environment, and thus with their culture, through which both ‘parties’ to the transaction are altered.”  (p. 56)

“The chief philosophies of education that come to mind when we look at the acquiring process in these alternative ways are, once more, the essentialist and progressivist.  The essentialist tends to take a conditioning view of learning . . . .”  (p. 57)

“By contrast, the progressivist assumes that when men acquire knowledge of culture they do not and certainly need not engage merely in ‘passive mentation’ but may learn also how to inquire into the conditions that have compelled them to acquire that knowledge in habitual ways. . . . [this practice] leads to an active reconstructive conception of learning defined as a transaction in which both poles of the epistemological equation — the knower and the known, the learner and the culture learned — are both modified.”  (p. 57)

El conductismo, este concepto surge a partir del trabajo del Psicólogo John Broadus Watson. Watson experimentaba con ratas y bebes para observar sus progresos.    

Estos experimentos no eran aceptados por todos. Pero Watson no paró hasta la muerte de su amada.     Posteriormente Skinner impulsa el neoconductismo.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IteGZg2fWuY